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VIRGIN FOREST OF BALD CYPRESS GROWING IN SWAMP 

Note conical " knees " and buttressed base of trees. — Copyrighted by 
Clark L. Poole £ Co., Chicago, Illinois. 



THE 

IMPOKTANT TIMBEK TKEES 

OF THE UNITED STATES 

A MANUAL OF 
PRACTICAL FORESTRY 

FOR THE USE OF 

FORESTERS, STUDENTS AND LAYMEN IN 

FORESTRY, LUMBERMEN, FARMERS AND 

OTHER LAND-OWNERS, AND ALL WHO 

CONTEMPLATE GROWING TREES 

FOR ECONOMIC PURPOSES 

BT 

SIMON B. ELLIOTT 

Member of the Pennsylvania Forestry Reservation 

Commission and Associate Member of the 

Society of American Foresters 




BOSTON AND NEW YORK 
HOUGHTON MIFFLIN COMPANY 

^t)e BiteriSitJe ptejSjS Cambtibge 
1912 



COPYRIGHT, 1912, BY SIMON B. ELLIOTT 
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 

Published April iqiz 



€ CI. A3 J 263 9 



^^ • tE^o tlje ^rmor^ of mti Mife 

31 EDfDicate ttjic; Book 



PREFACE 

The sincere but mistaken belief that our forests were 
inexhaustible was quite a natural one. Such a conolu- 
sion arose from their vast extent and vigorous growth, and 
when a cry for their protection and conservation was heard, 
it was, at first, deemed but a repetition of theory of "Wolf ! " 
in the fable, and was unheeded. In the beginning the cry 
was very faint and apparently far away ; but it grew louder 
and nearer as the danger of irreparable disaster became 
more imminent, and we now hear it in strong voice and on 
every hand. As this awakening to the impending danger 
has become widespread, there arises in the public mind a 
strong and earnest desire to know (1) whether the pro- 
ductive capacity of the forests of our country is adequate 
to meet the demands which will inevitably be made upon 
them ; and, if not, (2) whether any system of conserva- 
tion which will make it adequate can be devised and ap- 
plied. Moreover, the public desires to know (3) whether 
planting new forests on non-agricultural land, where the 
axe of the lumberman and successive fires have destroyed 
all valuable tree-growth, is practicable ; and, if so, (4) 
what species of trees would best be grown, where they 
should be planted, and how they can best be propagated 
and cared for. 

A comprehensive answer to the first two of these in- 
quiries must take cognizance of the condition of existing 
forests and, likewise, their possible future productive capa- 
city. Such answer should show whether we are consuming 
our forests faster than they grow ; and whether, under any 
system of forest management, they can be made to meet 
such future demands as the inevitable increase of popula- 
tion and new uses for forest products are sure to bring 
about. And the answer to the last two will, necessarily, 



viii PREFACE 

comprise and set forth the details of what may best be 
termed Practical Forestry. The question how well I have 
met these inquiries is submitted to the judgment of those 
who will peruse the following pages. 

My endeavor has been to make the work a Manual of 
Practical Forestry, — indulging in theory no more than is 
necessary to show the basis upon which theory rests. It is 
not claimed that a study of this volume will make a fully 
equipped forester ; for a study of no one book nor of all 
books can alone do that. The impossible has not been at- 
tempted. A fully endowed forester must have both a theo- 
retical and a practical knowledge of all matters pertaining 
to tree-life, and to this should be added broad experience 
and large opportunities for observation, covering the re- 
storation, productivity, harvesting, care, and perpetuation 
of forests grown and maintained for economic purposes. 
The average person who may desire to grow trees for such 
use cannot devote the necessary time to acquiring as full a 
knowledge of the science of forestry as the expert must 
possess. Such a course would, for him, be impracticable. 
It is claimed, however, that by a careful study of the con- 
tents of this volume one may, with the exercise of good 
judgment, successfully grow trees for economic purposes 
without being compelled to call in the services of a trained 
expert, or without being forced to roam through the do- 
main of botany, dendrology, and silviculture, or to master 
mensuration, stem analysis, or other purely technical fea- 
tures of scientific forestry. Not that experts possessing such 
knowledge are unnecessary, for they are necessary, and 
the country cannot do without them any more than it can 
dispense with the services of highly educated men in agri- 
culture, or any other line of industry on which the welfare 
of our country depends. But the average successful farmer 
does not have to depend wholly upon experts in agriculture 
successfully to carry on his farming operations, although 
he may and should be guided by their teachings. Neither 
should he, when he essays to grow trees for his own use, be 



PREFACE ix 

compelled to call in the services of an expert in forestry ; 
nor should any landowner, when he desires to reclothe his 
denuded lands with valuable species of trees, be unable in- 
telligently to direct such work. 

Technical terras are avoided wherever possible, but are 
absolutely necessary to identify the several species, for 
nearly all of our valuable timber trees are loaded with num- 
erous local common names, — some have more than a score, 
— and identification would be impossible without the use 
of a scientific name which has been established by usage 
and common consent and adopted by all recognized author- 
ities. A glossary of all these terms will be found in the 
Appendix, on a page devoted to that purpose. In giving 
the common and scientific names of the several species of 
trees which are considered worthy of consideration, I have 
followed the Check List of the Forest Trees of the United 
States, by George B. Sud worth, Dendrologist of the United 
States Forest Service, as the one which should be accepted 
as a standard of authority. In no other case is a technical 
term used where there is a substitute, and where there is 
no substitute the meaning of the term is explained. 

Perusal will disclose the fact that the main purpose of 
this volume is to urge, aid, and encourage tree-growing for 
economic purposes only, and it is more than probable that 
the reader will ask why certain species now being largely 
used have been deemed of enough importance to be de- 
scribed at length and yet are not recommended for cultiva- 
tion. The answer is that the forests of the future must be 
largely grown with planted trees, and there is no reason 
why we should plant or in any wise grow any but the most 
suitable and valuable ones — those that will produce the 
best and most needed forest products in the shortest time, 
and with the least labor and expense ; and such only have 
been recommended. We now accept less valuable species 
because they are present with us and they have cost us 
nothing to grow. Hereafter it will cost both money and 
labor and require much time to grow forests, and in the 



X PREFACE 

not distant future the price of forest products will be based 
upon the cost of production. If White Pine, which is easily 
propagated, will grow to be a merchantable tree in seventy- 
five years, and a Hemlock, which can be grown with diffi- 
culty, will require from one hundred and twenty-five to 
one hundred and fifty years to reach the same dimensions, 
and the product of the Pine be worth twice that of the 
Hemlock, it should be known, and when known there would 
be no question as to which should be planted. It is sometimes 
a good thing to know what not to do, and we cannot deter- 
mine which species are best adapted to cultivation unless 
we know the habits, character, and comparative value of 
each. There are enough valuable species to choose from and 
there is no reason why we should choose any but the very 
best, always keeping in mind the demands of the market, 
the uses the wood can be put to, the adaptability of the 
tree to the soil, climate, and location, and the rapidity of 
growth and facility of production. 

Another feature may cause surprise in the minds of some 
of my readers. It is not at all improbable that some of 
the descriptions of trees considered do not agree with the 
reader's personal observation, and yet such descriptions 
may well fit the general average of the tree. The character 
and general appearance of trees are frequently modified to 
a great extent by location, climate, and soil. Trees of a 
given species grown in the same vicinity will often vary 
in form and sometimes in character of wood ; therefore a 
description of the general average will best fit the case, and 
to give such has been my endeavor. 

Much time and labor have been spent in the preparation 
of this work, and while it is largely drawn from my own 
personal observations I feel myself greatly indebted to the 
aid which others have generously given me. I would gladly 
here publicly recognize the work of each, but they are too 
numerous, and I content myself with the personal acknow- 
ledgments which I have given by letter or otherwise. I 
have endeavored to aivc due credit to all authors from 



PREFACE xi 

whom I have consciously copied. Such recognition will be 
found in its appropriate place. I must not fail, however, to 
recognize here the value of the services and courtesies ex- 
tended to me by the Forest Service of the United States, 
through its able dendrologist, Mr. George B. Sudworth, 
and also to extend grateful acknowledgments for the use 
of many of the photographs here shown, due credit being 
given on each. I take great pleasure in expressing my grat- 
ification at the approval and suggestions of Professor F. 
W. Rane, State Forester of Massachusetts, to whom was 
submitted the manuscript before it was placed in the hands 
of the publishers. Professor Rane's approval is of moment, 
as it comes from one of the most practical foresters in the 
country. 

S. B. E. 

Reynoldsville, Pennsylvania, 
April, 1912. 



CONTENTS 

PART I 
I. Introductory 3 

II. Present Condition of the Forests .... 8 

III. Restoration and Treatment of Forests ... 14 

IV. Artificial Restoration . 22 

V. Forest Demands 31 

VI. Difficulties of Reforestation 38 

VII. Planting the Forest ........ 43 

VIII. Where and What to Plant 49 

IX. When to Harvest 53 

X. The Woodlot 58 

XI. Life-History of a Tree 63 

XII. Classification and Character of Wood ... 79 

XIII. The Forest Nursery 87 

XIV, The Transplant Nursery ....... Ill 

XV. How to care for and when to sow Forest Seeds 115 

XVI. Tap-Root 119 

XVII. When to Plant Trees in the Forest . . . 121 

XVIII. Spacing Trees in the Forest 123 

XIX. Will Planting Forests ever become Profitable? 126 

PART II 

The Pines 133 

The Spruces 178 



xiv CONTENTS 

The Firs . 189 

The Eastern Firs 189 

The Western Firs 191 

Douglas Fir 199 

The Hemlocks 203 

Red Cedar 207 

White Cedar 210 

Western Red Cedar 213 

Bald Cypress 215 

The Larches 219 

The Sequoias 226 

The Oaks: White Oak Class 231 

Red Oak Class 247 

The Ashes 258 

The Hickories c 208 

The Maples . 276 

Yellow Poplar 283 

Chestnut 286 

Black Cherry , 291 

The Elms 296 

Basswood 302 

The Birches 306 

Beech 310 

Black Walnut . 313 

Butternut 317 

Locust ...... 319 

Honey Locust 323 

Cucumber 326 



CONTENTS XV 

Sycamore 328 

The Cottonwoods 332 

The Gums 338 

The Catalpas 344 

Eucalyptus 348 

Broadleaf Trees of the Pacific Slope 351 

APPENDIX 

Glossary of Scientific Names of Species of Trees . . 361 

Average Height of Seedlings 364 

Approximate Percentage of Germination of Tree Seeds 366 
Number of Tree Seeds per Ounce and Pound, etc. . . 367 

Index 369 



ILLUSTRATIONS 

Virgin Forest of Bald Cypress growing in Swamp Frontispiece 

Destructive Lumbering, Elk County, Pennsylvania . . 6 

Red Pine, Forest-grown, standing on Normal School 
Grounds, Marquette, Michigan 6 

Virgin Forest of White Pine, Clearfield County, Penn- , 

sylvania 14 

Characteristic View in the Wiener-Wald, Austria . .24 

View in the Forest of Prince Bismarck, Friedrichsruhe, 
Germany, showing Compartment Line, which serves 
AS Fire Line and Road 40 

An Old Plantation of Spruce near Eisenach, Germany 40 

Second-Growth White Pine, about Thirty Years Old, 
Jefferson County, Pennsylvania 54 



Seedling White Ash, One Year Old, showing Develop- 
ment OF Tap-Root 64 

Spray and Staminate Blossoms of White Pine ... 64 

Development of White Pine Seeds 64 

Section of a White Pine Board, showing Annual Rings 72 

Section of a Joist Cut from Old-Field Pine, showing 
Marked Difference between Spring and Summer 
Wood 72 

Section of Red Oak, showing Medullary Rays and An- 
nual Rings 72 

Section of Carolina Poplar, showing Annual Rings, In- 
termediate Rings caused by Alternate Wp:t and Dry 
Weather, and Irregularly Shaped Heartwood . . 72 



t- 



xviii ILLUSTRATIONS 

Section of White Ash, showing Effect of Lack of Air 

AND Moisture for Roots on One Side .... 72 

Naturally Grown White Pine Seedlings, showing Lack / 

OF Fibrous Root Development 88 

Nursery-grown White Pine Seedlings and Transplants, 
showing Good Root Development 88 

Pennsylvania State Forest Nursery, Asaph, Pennsyl- / 

vania, showing Lath Screens over Seedlings . .96 

White Ash in the Experiment Forest Plantation at the 

State University, Champaign County, Illinois . . 96 

Ten- Year-Old White Pine Planting near Mont Alto, on 
Pennsylvania State Forestry Reservation. Work of 
Students of the Pennsylvania State Forest Academy 136 ' 

Typical Idaho Forest, showing Western White Pine, 
Larch, and Cedar, Kaniksu National Forest . . . 146 

Sugar Pine, Kings River, Fresno County, California . 146 

Round, or Untapped, Timber. Virgin Forest of Longleaf 
Pine, Ocilla, Georgia 154 

Loblolly (Old-Field) Pine, Shannon County, Missouri . 160 

Shortleaf Pine, Shannon County, Missouri .... 160 

Virgin Forest of Western Yellow Pine and Douglas Fir 

NEAR Mount Shasta, California . . . . . . 170 

Scotch Pine in Dense Stand on Campus, Iowa State Col- 
lege, Ames, Iowa 176 

Douglas Fir, showing Trees more than Seven Feet in 
Diameter. Western Washington 200 

Virgin Stand of White Pine and Hemlock, with Second 

Growth of Each coming on where Original Forest , 

WAS CUT OFF, Clearfield County, Pennsylvania . 204 

Virgin Stand of Hemlock, from One Hundred and Fifty to 
Two Hundred Years Old, Tioga County, Pennsylvania 204 



ILLUSTRATIONS xix 

Bald Cypress, not over Sevexty-five Years Old; Twenty- 
nine Inches in Diameter Six Feet above the Ground 

AND Eighty-four Feet High. State Capitol Grounds, 

I- 
Harrisburg, Pennsylvania 216 

Big Trees, with Sugar Pine, Western Yellow Pine, and 

White Fir, Sierra Nevada, California .... 226 

White Oak, Four Feet in Diameter, nearly Fifty Feet 

to First Limb, Fox Estate, Clarion County, Pennsyl- ^^^ 
VANIA 234 

Big Burr Oak, Gibson County, Indiana. Circumference . ^ 
above Swell, Twenty-two Feet 248 

Bed Oak, Four Feet in Diameter and more than Forty 
Feet to First Limb. Jefferson County, Pennsylvania 248 

Group of Hickories : Hicoria glabra and Shagbark. Mon- ^ 

terey, Putnam County, Tennessee 270 

Sugar Maple 278 

Yellow Poplar (Tulip-Tree), Forest-grown, Forty Inches 

in Diameter, Jefferson County, Pennsylvania . . 284 ^ 

Tulip-Tree, grown in the Open, Six Feet in Diameter, 
MoNASKON, Virginia 284 

Chestnut 288 ^' 

Black Cherry, North CArolina 292 ^ 

White, or Gray, Elm, Charlevoix County, Michigan . 296 

Basswood 302 

Beech 310 

Cucumber, nearly Five Feet in Diameter, in Virgin For- 
est, John E. DuBois Estate, Elk County, Pennsylvania 326 

Southern Hardwood Forest, mainly Red Gum . . . 342 



PART I 



THE IMPORTANT TIMBER TREES 
OF THE UNITED STATES 

I 

INTRODUCTORY 

No one can truthfully deny that we have reached a 
critical period in our country's industrial progress. We 
have, in the past, been loath to believe that we were even 
approaching such a period, for we have indulged in the 
belief — and many still hold to that faith — that our natural 
resources are inexhaustible. Observing men, however, know 
that such a conclusion is very far from fact, and realize 
that in our rapid advance in material progress we shall 
soon be face to face with the practical exhaustion of our 
important natural resources ; and they further realize that 
we must do something to conserve and, as far as possible, 
restore such resources or we shall, erelong, be overwhelmed 
with irreparable disaster. 

Fortunately many of our people are now beginning to 
see the absolute necessity for conservation and they are 
fast coming to a knowledge of the fact that, of all the re. 
sources which we now enjoy, — and of which we have here- 
tofore thoughtlessly boasted, — only such as arise, in some 
form, from the cultivation or use of the soil can be renewed 
when once exhausted. It is now becoming well understood 
that the time will come, and in the not far distant future, 
when our coal, oil, gas, and other valuable minerals will be 
either completely exhausted or so near that condition as to 
make their acquisition difficult and expensive. It is being 
further comprehended that, like other products of the soil, 
the forests which we still possess can, with proper manage- 



4 IMPORTANT TIMBER TREES 

ment, be maintained in useful perpetuity, and in many- 
cases their productive capacity be increased, and that while 
we are consuming their annual accretion we need not 
necessarily exhaust them ; and, what is equally important, 
it is likewise realized that forests can be grown in practi- 
cally all sections of our country where, in our early history, 
they once grew but have since been destroyed, and also 
even where there is no proof that any have ever existed. 
These facts give vital and commanding importance to that 
heretofore neglected feature of our national welfare known 
as "Practical Forestry," a feature which is second only 
to agriculture and one which hereafter must go hand in 
hand with that industry. 

It is gratifying to know that there is a growing concep- 
tion of the actual facts relating to our forest conditions, 
notwithstanding that they reveal a most deplorable state. 
We have come to understand that our present forests will 
no longer be capable of producing the vast amount of use- 
ful products which will be demanded of them. We have 
learned from statistics obtained by governmental effort that 
we are consuming our forests more than three times as fast 
as they grow,^ and we well know what, if not arrested, that 
will lead to. It is largely realized, too, that many new uses 
for forest products have recently sprung up, and that, through 
these new uses and the rapid increase of population in our 
country, the future demands for forest products will inev- 
itably be greatly increased ; and all must see that if such 
demand cannot be promptly and fully met the index hand 
on the dial of progress of this nation will advance no 
further, but, instead, go backward. 

1 " It has been shown that the present annual cut of forest products requires 
at least twenty billion cubic feet of wood. To produce this quantity of wood 
without impairing the capital stock, over seven hundred million acres of 
forest must make an annual increase of thirty cubic feet per acre. Under 
present conditions of mismanagement and neglect it is safe to say that the 
average annual increment is less than ten cubic feet per acre for the en- 
tire area. This means that each year's cut, at the present rate, takes the 
growth of more than three years." — United States Forest Service Circular, 
No. 97, page 14. 



INTRODUCTORY 5 

A comprehension of all this, and more, is surely finding 
a lodgment in the minds of the American people ; and the 
fact is fast being realized that the thought expressed by 
President Roosevelt — when he declared, in substance, that 
the forest problem is the most important one before us for 
solution — was not only true in every sense of the word but 
was timely uttered. The growing shortage of our supply of 
forest products, the rapidly increasing demands for such 
products, our cut-over, burned-over, and fast-becoming- 
barren lands, the disturbed flow of our springs and streams, 
and the erosion of the soil that is going on in consequence 
of the destruction of the forests, are conditions patent to 
all ; and these conditions, though vocally silent, convey to 
us, in a language that we cannot fail to understand, the 
importance of action on our part. They all point to the 
same conclusion, — that the forests should be restored at 
the earliest possible moment. 

The duty of the hour can be summed up in one sen- 
tence : a supply of forest products must be maintained 
by properly caring for what forests are left us and by 
planting others where necessary to meet the demand. If 
we do not do this the end of our nation's prosperity will 
soon be reached. Every day's delay adds to the difficulties 
to be encountered. 

How to care for our forests, how to increase their pro- 
ductive capacity, and how to grow new ones are, unfortun- 
ately, problems not so well understood by the people of this 
country as they should be ; but they must be solved. Few 
have given the subject — more properly the science, for 
forestry is a science — the careful, intelligent study that its 
importance demands. To the average citizen forestry is as 
a "sealed book." He knows not what is demanded; but 
such lack of knowledge is not to be wondered at. Until re- 
cently there has not been felt a necessity for its study. 
Nature had bounteously provided us with all the trees that 
we supposed we needed, and it has been believed, and still 
is believed by many, that she can be depended upon to con- 



6 IMPORTANT TIMBER TREES 

tinue in that work, — and so she could and would have 
done had we not interfered. But we have seriously and dis- 
astrously interfered. Over vast areas we have destroyed 
her seed trees and burned up her young growth. Instead 
of encouraging forest reproduction we have thoughtlessly 
and in many cases maliciously, prevented it. All this 
must come to an end, and it will in time, but there is great 
danger that it will not until dire necessity compels it. 

Those having faith that we shall erelong take up the good 
work of reforesting our once productive but now barren 
timber lands naturally turn to see what other people have 
done in that line ; and the first thought goes out to such 
European countries as have now attained great success in 
growing productive forests. Now, it is true that we can 
learn much from their experience, but it is equally true 
that we must largely depend upon ourselves, for our species 
of trees, our climatic conditions, and, largely, our soil, differ 
from theirs. So far as forest conditions go, we practically 
now stand where European nations stood two hundred and 
fifty or three hundred years ago, and of their experience in 
reforestation we can make use ; but, like them, we must 
build from the bottom up, taking from the experience of 
others such practices as may be found adapted to our con- 
ditions. 

Realizing all this, the author of this volume has, in the 
following pages, given the results of more than half a cen- 
tui-y's arduous, earnest, and painstaking study and observ- 
ation of forests and forest growth which prevail in this 
country, both as a student in forestry and as a practical 
lumberman of large experience, to which is added personal 
observation of some of the best European forests and an 
experience of more than seven years as a member of the 
Pennsylvania Forestry Reservation Commission. This study 
and experience has forced upon him the conclusion — and 
it is positive — that the principal effort in forestry in this 
country must, for the next sixty or seventy years, be directed 
to tree-growing, and that such tree-growing must mainly be 







^^ 



DEriTKUCTlVK LI .\lliEKlN(f : LAM V LAK » CLT 

Standing forest was cut this year and fires will no doubt soon follow. Elk County, 
Pennsylvania. — Photographed by Dr. Hugh P. Baker. 




RED PINE, FOREST-GROWN 

Standing on Normal School grounds, Marquette, Michigan. 



INTRODUCTORY 7 

done by planting seeds where the trees are to stand in the 
forest, or in growing young trees in nurseries and trans- 
planting them where they are to grow to maturity — the 
latter, except in the case of nut-bearing trees, being by far 
the best system. Extensive tree-planting in some form is 
an absolute necessity for the future welfare of this country. 
While tree-growing is the prominent feature of this vol- 
ume, it is deemed advisable to give, in addition, a general 
view of the condition of our remaining forests, their possibil- 
ities and limits, the best method to be pursued in caring for 
them, and other matters that are necessary for a full un- 
derstanding, by the plain people, of the fundamentals which 
underlie the successful growing of trees for economic pur- 
poses. Such knowledge is necessary intelligently to deter- 
mine what is best to do under varying circumstances and 
conditions. A general knowledge of how forests are grown 
and cared for; the natural range and local habitat of the 
several important timber trees of our country ; what treat- 
ment each species should receive ; the character and uses 
of the wood of each ; the difficulties surely to be encount- 
ered ; and the peculiarity and characteristics of tree-life and 
tree-growth should be understood, in order to arrive at an 
intelligent conclusion as to what and where to plant. If the 
author has so shown all this that it will be readily under- 
stood, and if what is herein set forth will stimulate an ef- 
fort to grow trees and thus aid in saving our country from 
irreparable disaster, then his aim will be fully accomplished. 



II 

PRESENT CONDITION OF THE FORESTS 

No proof should be demanded to show that the pro- 
ducts of the forests are absolutely essential to modern civil- 
ization. Neither should it be questioned that a civilized 
people must have such products iu abundance in order to 
strengthen and maintain that civilization. That the supply 
should be ample in quantity and acceptable in quality and 
character is undeniable ; and, furthermore, it needs little 
proof to demonstrate that the presence of forests assures 
an equable flow of springs and streams, and that in the 
absence of that equable flow there are destructive floods fol- 
lowed by dry stream-beds and disastrous erosion of the soil. 
Argument to show all this would be superfluous ; but there 
are other features of the forest problem which are not so 
apparent or so well understood. 

In former times the lumberman took only that which 
would make merchantable sawed lumber, and small stuff 
was allowed to grow; but now, between the lumberman, 
the tie, pole, pulp, and acid man, practically everything is 
taken and the ground is cleared of all timber growth that 
can ever amount to anything. No seed trees are left, and if 
fire follows, as it usually does, the ground becomes a barren 
waste. Land once denuded of trees and other vegetable 
growth is subject to inevitable erosion of the soil, and such 
erosion destroys not only the hillside and mountain slopes 
on which it occurs, but fills the water courses, and in time, 
through the deposition of earth brought from above by the 
water, may ruin the valleys also. Serious erosion renders 
natural reforestation impossible and makes any other very 
difficult and expensive, and in many cases entirely prevents 
it ; and if such erosion is long continued it leaves the re- 



PRESENT CONDITION OF THE FORESTS 9 

gion no better than Palestine and parts of southern Europe 
now are. 

It is believed by many that when our own forests are 
exhausted we can go to other countries for our supply of 
forest products. That will not be possible. Our neighbor, 
Canada, must retain enough for her own use, and she is 
bound to give the mother country what surplus she may 
have, for Great Britain is practically destitute of product- 
ive forests, although at this writing she proposes to plant, 
at great expense, no less than 9,000,000 acres in the United 
Kingdom; and much of the expense will be for the pur- 
chase of agricultural lands for forestry purposes. Already 
have several of the Canadian provinces prohibited the 
exportation of pulp-wood cut on crown lands. Of all Euro- 
pean countries only Russia and Norway have more forests 
than they need, but the area of forests in the latter country 
is small. Germany imports one third of the amount of wood 
consumed within her borders, notwithstanding that twenty- 
five per cent of her area is covered with productive forests. 
France has eighteen per cent of her domain in forest, but 
this produces only one third of what her people consume. 
Except those noted none are growing enough forest pro- 
ducts to supply their own wants, and civilized nations 
should recognize the fact that we are facing a world-wide 
timber famine, and the calamity of such a famine will come 
all too soon unless active measures shall be adopted to avert 
it; and, what is more, the erosion of the soil — "in part 
consequent upon the denudation of the forests and in part 
caused by our present careless and unwise system of culti- 
vation — when combined with the rapid exhaustion of all 
our natural resources, most prominent among which are 
the forests, will, if continued, render this globe ill-fitted 
for civilized human abode. The condition of our own 
country is fairly typical of that of the whole civilized 
world. It is discouraging to realize that this country of 
ours will, erelong, reach the high-water mark of its pro- 
sperity, but that time will soon come unless the impending 



10 IMPORTANT TIMBER TREES 

disaster of a timber famine can be forestalled. Our down- 
ward course will begin when our forests fail to supply our 
needs. 

But supposing it were possible for us to obtain a supply 
of wood products from abroad, can we afford to put the 
destinies of this country into the hands of other nations 
simply because we are loath to do our duty to ourselves and 
those who are to come after us ? A nation without forests 
of its own is, undeniably, a weak nation, and one that will 
be at the mercy of those possessing them. When the 
world's supply of coal is gone — and it is estimated that 
at the present rate of consumption two hundred years will 
bring about the practical exhaustion of all known depos- 
its — those nations possessing a full and continuous supply 
of forest products will be the independent nations of the 
world. Neither should we flatter ourselves that, in the 
event of a failure or serious shortage of supply, some sub- 
stitute for forest products will be found to any considerable 
extent. The enormous quantities required and the various 
uses wood is put to preclude the possibility of that. It is 
wood that we need and wood we must have or the index 
hand on the dial of progress of this nation will go back- 
ward never again to return. 

Recent governmental publications^ show the amount, 
character, and cost of most of the forest products of the 
United States for the year 1909, The accompanying table 
gives the product of 48,112 sawmills for that yeai-. This is 
instructive, as it names the species of trees and the amount 
and percentage of lumber cut from each. It will be seen 
that the thirty-one species named yielded 99.9 per cent of the 
whole, while, as will be noted, " all others " were embraced 
in the remaining one tenth of one per cent. The first five 
furnished 73.1 per cent, the first seven supplied 80.4, and 
the first ten gave 86.9, while all the several species of pine 

1 Forest Products, Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9: Bureau of the Census, 
compiled in cooperation with the Department of Agriculture : Forest Serv- 
ice. Henry S. Graves, Forester, Issued April 11, 1911. 



PRESENT CONDITION OF THE FORESTS 



11 



LUMBER, 1909 
Quantity of lumber cut, and per cent of distribution, by kinds of wood, 1909 







^ 


1 __ 






^^ 






Rank 


"ScQ 


'"^^ • 


Kind of Wood. 


in pro- 


§- 


^"^ 




duction. 










^ 


S 3 


Total 


_ 


44,509,761 


100.0 


Yellow pine 


1 


16,277,185 


36.6 


Douglas fir 


2 


4,856,378 


10.9 


Oak ........ 


3 


4,414,457 


9.9 


White pine 


4 


3,900,034 


8.8 


Hemlock 


5 


3,051,399 


69 


Spruce 


6 


1,748,547 


3.9 


Western pine 


7 


1,499,985 


3.4 


Maple 


8 


1,100,604 


2.5 


Cypress 


9 


955,635 


2.1 


Yellow poplar , . . . 


10 


858,500 


1.9 


Red gum 


11 


706,945 


1.6 


Chestnut ...... 


12 


663,891 


1.5 


Redwood 


13 


521,630 


1.2 


Beech ...... 


14 


511,244 


1.1 


Birch 


15 


452,370 


10 


Basswood 


16 


399,151 


0.9 


Elm 


17 


347,456 


0.8 


Cedar 


18 


346,008 


0.8 


Hickory 


19 


333,929 


0.8 


Ash ..... o . . 


20 


291,209 


0.7 


Cottonwood ..... 


21 


265,600 


0.6 


Larch 


22 


264,022 


0.6 


Tamarack ..... 


23 


157,192 


0.4 


Balsam fir 


24 


108,702 


0.2 


Sugar pine 


25 


97,191 


0.2 


Tupelo 


26 


96,676 


0.2 


White fir 


27 


89,318 


0.2 


Sycamore 


28 


56,511 


0.1 


Walnut 


29 


46,108 


0.1 


Cherry ...... 


30 


24,594 


0.1 


Lodgepole pine .... 


31 


23,733 


0-1 


All other 


- 


37,557 


0.1 



12 IMPORTANT TIMBER TREES 

yielded 50.2 per cent. This clearly indicates the species of 
trees which produce the kind of lumber in greatest demand ; a 
feature which should not be overlooked when determining 
what to plant. Although hemlock yielded 6.9 per cent of 
the whole, that species of tree will be practically exhausted 
within the next fifteen or twenty years or sooner. 

In addition to this table there is here given a synopsis 
of other tables ^ showing the several products, their amount 
and cost. From this can be seen the large demand that is 
made upon our forests, and the enormous sum of money 
there is involved in exploiting them. This synopsis includes 
only such wood as is used for the purposes named. No ac- 
count is taken of wood used for fuel, or for round timbers 
used in mines, or for piles and other like purposes, nor for 
any of the other numerous uses to which wood not sawed is 
put. How much of all this there was used is not known, 
but there must have been a large amount.^ 

The use of species heretofore deemed of little value has 
been seized upon by those who scout the idea of a timber 
famine, as showing that there is still timber for all pur- 
poses and some to spare, when, in fact, this new supply is 

^ Synopsis of " Forest Products " Reports, showing purposes, amount, and 
cost of the wood used in the industries named 

No. of Report Industry and Amount Cost 

1 Pulp-wood, 4,001,607 cords . . . $34,477,540 

2 Sawed lumber, 44,509,761,000 board feet . 684,479,859 
2 Shingles, 14,907,371 thousand . . . 30,262,462 

2 Lath, 3,703,195 thousand .... 9,963,439 

3 Slack cooperage, board feet not given . 20,195,125 

4 Tanbark, 1,022,435 tons .... 9,968,710 

5 Veneers, 435,981,000 feet, log scale . . 8,977,516 

6 Tight cooperage, board feet not given . 3,716,296 

7 Distillation, 1,149,847 cords . . . 3,818,282 

8 Cross-ties, 123,751,000 .... 60,320,700 

9 Poles, 3,738,740 7,073,826 

Total ....... $873,253,755 

2 Bureau of the Census, Report No. 10, Department of Labor, 1908, 
shows that the wood used around the farm alone, such as poles, posts, rails, 
and the like, when added to the wood used for fuel throughout the coun- 
try, — two thirds of the people use wood for fuel, — is equivalent in value 
to thirty-one per cent of the total value of the forest product. 



PRESENT CONDITION OF THE FORESTS 13 

only a temporary relief and would not be used were not 
the better species nearing exhaustion. Like the others 
these less valuable species will, in due time, be exhausted — 
and that day is not far distant — and what then? Because 
we can and do use inferior woods shall we conclude that 
these, too, cannot be exhausted? It is fortunate that we 
can use them, and we should take advantage of that use 
while they last, and grow better ones in their stead. In 
whatever direction we turn we shall see that the future of 
our timber supply is, at best, precarious, and that only by 
growing new forests can we save posterity from our greed 
and negligence. 

Probably our forests are in no worse condition to-day 
than were those of Germany and France two hundred 
years ago, when those nations began reforestation. Success 
crowned their efforts and should ours, if we put forth the 
same endeavors. It is true that our civilization demands ' 
more wood per capita than has ever before been consumed 
by any other people ; but that shows the need of greater 
effort. However desperate our case may appear to be, there 
is one thing to encourage us : European forests have been 
restored and made productive, and so may ours be, espe- 
cially as we are blessed with more valuable species than 
they possess. 



Ill 

KESTORATION AND TREATMENT OF FORESTS 

There are now to be found practically two classes of 
forests in the United States. One of these is known as 
" Virgin Forest," — the poet's " forest primeval," — 
where the full stand of trees planted by Nature still exists, 
and would, if not interfered with, be by her constantly 
maintained. The other is composed of such growth as may 
have been left by the lumberman after he has taken all he 
desired, — and with no thought of reproduction, — to- 
gether with that which has been allowed to grow since the 
removal of the more valuable portion. This class is called 
" Second-Growth Forest." The areas covered by the 
latter class are sometimes spoken of as "Cut-over," or 
" Stripped " lands. When considering the increase of pro- 
ductive forests there can very properly be placed with this 
class such non-agricultural areas as were once covered with 
forests, but which have been repeatedly burned over and 
all valuable species of trees destroyed, and which are 
now practically barren wastes, containing little or no tree- 
growth that can ever become valuable. If left to the slow 
processes of unaided Nature they will not be reforested 
with valuable species in a thousand years, if ever. The 
area of virgin forests is far less than that of the other and 
it is being constantly and rapidly reduced ; and from these 
virgin forests must our main supply of forest products be 
drawn until others are grown. Through judicious and con- 
servative management, as elsewhere indicated, the capacity 
of our virgin forests may be increased to some extent, but 
the claim that it can be increased threefold (see page 4), 
no careful student of forest problems wiU concede. Look- 
ing at the problem of a future supply from any standpoint 



RESTORATION AND TREATMENT OF FORESTS 15 

we may choose, we are confronted with the absolute need 
of increasing the productiveness of our virgin forests by 
conservative treatment, and the equal need of making the 
second-growth areas productive by caring for such valuable 
species as now exist there, and also by planting where none 
are to be found ; and this brings us to a consideration of 
the treatment of all forests. 

Action along either of these lines — increasing the pro- 
ductiveness of present forest area and enlarging that area 
over regions where trees once grew but have been destroyed 
— may, in general terms, be called Practical Forestry, 
a science quite new to this country and but little under- 
stood by the greater proportion of our people. Still, there 
is nothing abstruse in it, nothing difficult to understand. 

But if we cannot increase the productiveness of our \^^- 
gin forests threefold, what can be done along that line ? 
This cannot be definitely answered, owing to varying for- 
est conditions, but some increase can be brought about, 
though the limit will necessarily soon be reached. In tree- 
life, as in all other, there is an age reached which we call 
maturity. When a tree arrives at that period its best eco- 
nomic development is secured. Thenceforth there is a de- 
cline until death wipes it out of existence. When trees are 
mature they should be removed and give room for others 
to grow in their places. All the time embraced in the life 
of a tree from maturity until it falls to the ground is just 
that much time lost in the use of the land which it occu- 
pies. Removing such mature trees as are not required to 
produce seed for a future growth is known as Selective 
Cutting — sometimes called Conservative Cutting. 

If there should be found immature trees of valuable 
species interfering with each other, the weakest should be 
removed, as should also all diseased ones of any kind. If 
badly developed trees or those of worthless species occupy 
any portion of the ground, these, too, should be cleared 
away, unless they will, for a time, serve as " nurse trees " 
to compel the valuable ones to grow tall and free of limbs. 



16 IMPORTANT TIMBER TREES 

Such work is termed Improvement Cutting. Thus by 
selective and improvement cutting man can prevent the 
waste of time Nature indulges in and thereby increase the 
productiveness of the forest. That is about all that can be 
done along this line with virgin forests, but it should be 
rigidly carried out if conditions do not indicate that the 
whole stand should be removed and a new foi-est planted, 
a point which will be discussed later on. But no treatment 
of virgin forests can be depended upon to increase ma- 
terially the area of productive forests, and that is what is 
absolutely necessary in this country. 

All will agree that land suitable for agriculture should 
be reserved for that purpose ; but it is equally true that 
land not so suited, and which has once borne a crop of 
trees, can and should once more be devoted to that use ; 
and there is a large area of that kind of land in this coun- 
try. Reclothing such land with trees is called Reforesta- 
tion. It embraces replacing trees that have been removed 
from a forest for any cause ; and, likewise, contemplates 
sowing seed or planting young trees in a forest, whether 
virgin or second-growth, where too few exist for profit ; or 
where those standing are of undesirable species ; and it 
also includes a complete restoration of tree-growth by sow- 
ing or planting seeds or trees on any barren land where 
trees once grew, or can be made to grow. When depend- 
ence is placed on Nature to sow the seed for renewal the 
system is known as Natural Reforestation; and when 
man aids by removing a portion of the trees, so that Na- 
ture may sow seed where it will have a chance to grow, or 
he himself sows the seed or plants the trees, the scheme is 
very properly called Artificial Reforestation. 

It will thus be seen that there are substantially two 
methods of reforestation ; one by natural processes alone, 
and the other largely, or entirely, through the instrument- 
ality of man. The former is the one by which Nature 
brought forth the virgin forests and by which she would 
perpetuate them if allowed to do so. She grows and ripens 



RESTORATION AND TREATMENT OF FORESTS 17 

the seeds and provides means for their distribution. To the 
seeds of most trees she gives wings, that they may travel 
on the winds and find a home far away from the parent 
tree ; while she leaves the task of scattering some to the 
birds, squirrels, and other animals, and trusts to varying 
chance and opportunity their subsequent life and growth. 

NATURAL REFORESTATION 

To understand fully the results which are likely to ensue 
from natural reforestation it will be well to study the his- 
tory of an average forest. Naturally, as stated, trees spring 
from seed, grow, reach maturity, become old, die, decay, 
and Nature arranges for others to take their places. If the 
seeds are ready to fall in the place of fallen trees, or other- 
wise unoccupied ground, and conditions are such that the 
seeds will germinate, and the surroundings are such that 
the young trees can triumph in their struggle with other 
growths of the soil, or sprouts come from those that are 
growing old, then natural and profitable reforestation 
will take place in good time ; but if the seed is not ready 
at the right time, or the conditions are not favorable, then 
the seeds of worthless species may, and almost invariably 
will, come and occupy the ground and a valueless forest 
will be the result. The same thing may occur when a por- 
tion of the trees are removed by man, with the additional 
chance of failure through the removal of seed-bearing 
trees,* or injury to those left standing through the removal 
of the others. 

Besides this the valuable species of trees in a given for- 
est may all be ripe and fit to be removed, and actual loss 
occur if any of them are allowed to stand longer ; or they 
may be few in number and surrounded with worthless 
ones. To remove all the valuable ones in either case would 
preclude the possibility of natural reforestation with valu- 
able species ; and to remove the worthless ones, or a large 
portion of the others, might prove disastrous because of the 
inability of those left to endure their changed surround- 



18 IMPORTANT TIMBER TREES 

ings. In either event worthless species would be almost 
certain to spring up and the whole character of the forest 
liable to become changed. The second-growth forests of 
the country attest that fact. It is seldom that a cut-over 
forest consists of the original species. This may occur, 
however, where, as in some sections, such trees as Redwood, 
Chestnut, and some of the Oaks throw up sprouts from 
roots and stumps. A Chestnut forest can be depended upon 
to reproduce itself naturally with a good deal of certainty, 
but in a few generations of sprouts the root system becomes 
so weakened by cutting that seed-grown trees must be sub- 
stituted. Moreover, sprout trees seldom attain a large size 
if allowed to grow. The decay which takes place in the 
stump affects their vitality. 

There is another important feature which should be con- 
sidered when deciding upon the method of perpetuating a 
forest ; and that is its productive capacity. The appended 
table ^ shows the net annual revenue that is derived from 
nearly all European forests, and also from those of the United 
States, the revenue being necessarily based upon the yield. 
The first eight countries named follow artificial methods of 
reproduction to a greater or less degree. The first four 
— Wiirttemberg, Saxony, Baden, and Hesse — carry it on 
intensively, while the remainder of the list shows the rela- 
tive care, or, rather, lack of care, given to their forests by 
man, our own country showing a deplorable negligence. 
From this it will be seen that natural regeneration re- 
quires a much larger area to be devoted to tree-growing 
than would be necessary to produce the requisite amount 
of lumber if artificial reproduction should be depended upon. 
Had we, fifty or sixty years ago, set aside as much forest 
area as could have been spared, and treated the whole in a 
conservative manner, conditions would be far different 
from what they are now. 

1 The annual yield of our forests is far less than those of Europe where 
they are maintained through artificial methods. There the average yield ia 
forty cubic feet per acre ; ours does not exceed twelve feet. Some Prussian 



RESTORATION AND TREATMENT OF FORESTS 19 



Furthermore, the practice of cutting the mature and 
leaving the immature trees must necessarily bring about 
a very irregular harvest. Trees left at the first cutting will 
quite likely be of all sizes from seedlings up to a size 
nearly large enough to cut, and the periods of their ma- 
turity will vary accordingly. This will compel frequent 
cuttings with varying yield. Therefore roads must be kept 
up and mills with appliances for manufacture be main- 
tained with but small product. Such a system would do well 
for the farmer's woodlot, but would not be profitable as a 
lumbering proposition. 

Finally, and by no means the least serious drawback to 
selective cutting and natural seed-sowing, is the probable 
failure of seeds to bring forth trees, even if they fall in 
abundance in suitable places and at the right time, all of 

forests yield seventy cubic feet. The following table, copied from United 
States Forest Service Circular, No. 140, entitled " What Forestry has Done," 
will show the net revenues received by European countries, and also the 
annual expenditures : — 

Expenditures and revenues of national forests, showing higher productiveness 
under larger expenditures ^ 



COUNTET 



Wiirttemberg 

Saxony 

Baden 

Hesse » . . 

Switzerland 

Prussia 

Bavaria 

France 

Italy 

Hungary . . . . o 

Austria 

Roumania . 

Spain 

Sweden 

Russia 

United States -j ^ QOfi-7 



Total net 




revenue 


Expenditure 


from Govern- 


per acre 


ment forests. 




$3,098,428 


$2.05 


2,299,000 


3.00 


829,162 


3.58 


744,209 


1.25 


237,663 


1.32 


17,054,144 


1.58 


5,128,348 


1.99 


4,737,250 


.95 


_ 


.34 


5,313,000 


.56 


482,600 


- 


1,677,672 


.02 


21,500,000 


.01 


2 12,000 


.007 


128,659 


.0093 



Net revenue 
per acre 



$6.60 
5.30 
4.42 



.29 
.55 
.50— 
.22 
.75 
.33 
.32 
.21 
.18 
.17 
.09 
.032 
2 .0001 
.00086 



Prepared from the latest available data. 



2 Deficit. 



20 IMPORTANT TIMBER TREES 

which is very uncertain. If they fall in the deep shadow 
of the remaining trees, or among bushes, weeds, brush, or 
other stuff, they are deposited where germination is very 
uncertain and infant tree life nearly impossible. At best 
they may fall on a forest floor the top of which is com- 
posed of leaves in only a partial state of decay. If enough 
moisture is found there to induce germination there is no 
mineral soil close by for the tender rootlet to enter and 
secure moisture and food, and a few days of dry weather 
will kill the little plants outright. Unless mineral soil can 
be reached soon after the seed bursts into life, or the seed- 
bed be kept continually moist, the life of the plant is very 
uncertain. With nearly all of our timber trees mineral soil 
is necessary to support life in infancy as well as later on. 
A careful examination of the area underneath the crown 
of a seed-bearing tree, even in a comparatively open forest, 
will show how few seeds bring forth plants. If the weak 
root is compelled to work its way down through the par- 
tially decomposed leaves to mineral soil, or the miniature 
stem compelled to encounter undecayed leaves in its efforts 
to grow upward, the chances are more than a hundred to 
one that failure will result. Millions of seeds may fall and 
not one produce a tree. From all this it will be seen that 
there are great uncertainties connected with natural re- 
forestation, and wisdom demands that these uncertainties 
be recognized and guarded against. 

It is true that natural reforestation is Nature's method, 
and it is cheerfully admitted that in some cases it is the best 
way, and when it is it should be followed ; and it will be 
seen that it is recommended in many cases when discussing 
the best methods of propagating certain species ; but un- 
less the conditions and the character of trees and sur- 
roundings are exceptional, it will be found far more likely 
to fail than otherwise. If adopted, care must be taken that 
succeeding crops do not " grow smaller by degrees and 
beautifully less." 

Accepting, then, the conclusion that we cannot, to any 



RESTORATION AND TREATMENT OF FORESTS 21 

great extent, depend upon natural processes for such resto- 
ration of our forests as will enable them to produce an ade- 
quate supply of forest products, we must turn to some 
other method whereby we can in some way aid Nature ; and 
when we accept that fact and act upon it we shall engage 
in practical forestry with reasonable hope of success. We 
well know that our forest conditions are quite unlike those 
in European countries, but ours are practically the same 
as were theirs two hundred years ago. Since success has 
crowned their efforts, why may not the same results occur 
here? It needs no argument to show that the principles 
which underlie tree-culture are alike everywhere ; therefore 
we should by no means conclude that we are in the dark. 
We have before us the results of two centuries of European 
experience and we certainly should profit by that experi- 
ence wherever it is applicable to our conditions and climate. 
We are at the " parting of the ways." One road — and 
it is the one we have been following — will lead us to the 
same estate that prevails in western Asia and much of 
northern Africa and southern Europe — a condition of 
dreary desert. If the other is followed, the shorn and tree- 
less hills and mountains of our country may again be cov- 
ered with forests, the beauty of the landscape be restored, 
our springs and streams once more be flowing in their for- 
mer uniform fullness, and our economic needs of forest 
products be amply supplied. There is no middle road to 
take and reach success. Our forests are too near exhaustion 
to depend upon natural reforestation. Either they will go 
the way of all neglected forests, leaving this land ill 
adapted to the abode of civilized man, or restoration 
through man's efforts must be brought about. We are in 
no condition to defy the experience of others, or adopt 
theories not based on practical common sense. Mistakes in 
forestry are so long-lived that the errors of one generation 
are handed down to another. If ever the sins of the fathers 
will burden their children they will in this case, if we com- 
mit them. 



IV 

ARTIFICIAL REFORESTATION 

Besides Natural Reforestation brought about by the 
system of Selective Cutting, already discussed, there may 
be named Strip Seeding, Spot Seeding, Broadcast 
Sowing, Planting in Hills, and Growing Trees in a 
Nursery and transplanting them into the forest, all of 
which are embraced in Artificial Reforestation. Some 
one of these methods is adapted to every locality, but all 
may not be to any one. 

Strip Seeding. In carrying out this plan the entire 
stand of trees is cut from a narrow strip at the side of a 
forest which is old enough to bear an abundant crop of 
seed, choosing that side which is opposite to the prevailing 
winds. This operation is termed " clean cutting." The 
expectation is that by thus locating the ground to be seeded, 
Nature, through the agency of the winds, will sow the seeds. 
This may or may not occur, however, as there may be little 
or no wind when the seeds are ripe and falling, or it may 
blow in the wrong direction. But if seeding does occur it 
will not be uniform, for some seeds will be carried farther 
than others. Much will depend upon the velocity of the 
wind. At best, it will be uneven, as more seed will fall 
next to the parent trees than elsewhere. Consequently, in 
order to secure an even stand, whereby the land will be 
made to produce the greatest yield possible, there will be 
more or less work to be done in thinning in places where 
the young trees are too numerous and planting where there 
are too few. 

If no seeding occurs the year the trees are cut, delay 
must ensue until another seed year comes around, which, 
with conifers, may not occur for several years, — on an av- 



ARTIFICIAL REFORESTATION 23 

erage not oftener than once in five years, — thus delaying 
reforestation. Of course it will be seen that this system is 
suitable for only such species of trees as have winged seeds. 
The width of the strip cut should not exceed twice the 
height of the trees unless the ground slopes rapidly away 
from those left standing, as in that case the seeds would be 
carried farther than if on the level or uphill. Examination 
should be made of the trees to be left standing to ascertain 
if they will furnish seed the year that it is proposed to cut 
the timber. If it is not evident that seed will be forthcom- 
ing at the right time, delay in cutting must take place, for 
if cutting is not followed the same year by seeding, failure 
will be very apt to result through a growth of sprouts, shrubs, 
weeds, or from some worthless species of trees springing 
up, and these may be so far advanced when seeding does 
occur that germination cannot take place, or, if it does, the 
young trees will be suppressed. To insure germination the 
surface of the strip is sometimes gone over with some im- 
plement that will scarify it and expose the mineral soil for 
the seeds to fall into. However satisfactory this system 
may prove in certain cases, it is not practiced to any great 
extent in European countries. In Saxony, where are the 
most perpetually productive forests in the world, in an av- 
erage annual reforestation of sixty-nine hundred acres only 
eight hundred 'are from seed sown by this method. Yet 
there is no question but that it may serve a good purpose 
in some situations, and especially so with such conifers as 
are frequent and prolific seeders. On rough, rocky, or 
swampy ground where planting young trees would be diffi- 
cult this system may prove the best of any. Of course it is 
obvious that in all cases where natural scattering of seeds 
is to be depended upon, the species of trees to be grown 
must be that of the stand from which they come, and if the 
parent forest is of mixed species much must depend upon 
whether all will bear seed in the same year, and, if so, 
whether all will be scattered alike. In short, there can be 
no satisfactory control of species likely to occur. In this 



24 IMPORTANT TIMBER TREES 

respect it is no better than, if as good as, that which may- 
result from selective cutting, for, under that system, unde- 
sirable species may be removed before seed-sowing. 

Spot Seeding. Still another method of aiding Nature 
in sowing seeds prevails to a certain extent in Europe and 
is known as "Spot Seeding." In principle it is substan- 
tially the same as Strip Seeding. Observing when the for- 
est ti-ees will mature seed, a spot, circular or otherwise, is 
chosen in the forest and cut clean of trees. Then as the 
seeds mature the wind is depended upon to sow them on 
the vacant area. This has one advantage over the strip 
method. No matter from which direction the winds may 
blow at the time the seeds fall, the ground is almost sure 
to be seeded, for it will be entirely surrounded with seed 
trees. But whether this or the Strip method is adopted 
there is almost certain to be an irregular and unsatisfac- 
tory distribution and scattering of the seeds, — too many 
in some places and too few in others, — and there must be 
a thinning in some localities and planting in others ; and, 
furthermore, no satisfactory control of species can be ob- 
tained, nor can seeds from nut-bearing trees be sown by 
the wind. Besides this, the system leaves the forest in an 
irregular stand, with mature and immature trees in clumps 
and more or less interfering with roads and fire-lanes. 
Another objection to it is that the mature trees left may 
have to stand a long time before they can be cut, for when 
they are removed no seeding can occur on the ground occu- 
pied by them until the adjacent younger ones bear seed, 
which, with most conifers, does not occur under thirty or 
forty years from birth. In this feature it is not as satisfac- 
tory as Strip Seeding, for then there is taken a strip, from 
time to time, until the whole is gone over ; and by the time 
the last strip has been cut the first one sown may be ma- 
ture, and the process can be repeated. The features which 
make it superior to that method are greater certainty of 
seeding and protection of young trees from wind. 



ARTIFICIAL REFORESTATION 25 

But notwithstanding the objections named, Spot Seeding 
may, in some places, do as well as Strip Seeding. Espe- 
cially so may it serve a good purpose with the Spruces and 
the Southern Pines, and also with the Western Hemlock 
and Douglas Spruce of the Pacific Coast. But in all cases 
injury is likely to occur to the young trees in felling and 
removing the mature ones. 

Thus far, in the schemes considered for reproducing for- 
est trees, dependence has been placed entirely upon Na- 
ture's production and reckless distribution of seeds, where 
she gives thousands and thousands for every tree that 
matures. In Strip and Spot Seeding man aids much in re- 
moving the danger of suppression of young growth by 
overshadowing trees or in their being robbed of food and 
moisture, as none are left to do that, while the surface is 
left in much better condition for the germination of the 
seeds because of the more or less disturbance it undergoes 
in removing the stand, and the consequent exposure of the 
mineral soil. However satisfactory one or both of these 
schemes may at times prove to be, there is now but a lim- 
ited area of forests in this country where either of them 
can be successfully applied. Each requires a fairly full 
stand of mature trees to produce seed and in but few situ- 
ations are there enough such left to justify any dependence 
being placed upon them. Only with dense forests of valu- 
able species can they succeed. They may aid, but some one 
or all of the other systems must be largely adopted if our 
country is to be supplied with the greatly needed forest 
products. Nature must be aided in forestry as well as in 
agriculture. Seeds must be gathered and sown in some 
fashion and the greatest care should be exercised in select- 
ing the best species and adopting the best methods of 
growing trees from them. 

That better methods than any yet named can be chosen 
there is no question, and these will now be discussed. They 
are known as Broadcast Sowing, Planting Seeds in Hills, 



26 IMPORTANT TIMBER TREES 

Growing Young Trees in Nurseries, and, when at proper 
age, transplanting them into the forests. Of course, all 
these presume the gathering of seeds, a subject which will 
be discussed when the various species of timber trees to be 
grown are described. 

Broadcast Sowing. This is nothing more or less than 
scattering by hand a suitable amount of seed as evenly as 
possible over barren or partially covered ground, just as a 
farmer sows his grain without the aid of a drill or other 
seed-sower. To be at all successful the ground should be 
cleared of trees, brush, and weeds, for if these are present 
in any considerable quantity the young trees will be sup- 
pressed by them should the seed germinate. If it is gone 
over with any implement like a harrow, which will scarify 
the surface and expose the mineral soil, there will be much 
greater certainty of satisfactory results. A light brush har- 
row, dragged over the ground by hand after the seeds are 
sown, will so cover them as to cause quite a satisfactory 
germination. In the absence of such treatment of the sur- 
face the seed should be sown on a light snow in the spring, 
and when the snow melts, the seed will be more or less 
carried down by the water into the soil, if it is exposed, or 
among the leaves and litter if such are present. 

There are several somewhat serious objections to this 
method. One is that germination of the seed is very uncer- 
tain. It may not fall in a suitable place or may not be cov- 
ered. To overcome this a large amount of seed must be 
sown. In Schlich's Manual it is claimed that six pounds of 
White Pine seed should be sown on an acre of ground. A 
pound of that seed should produce, in a nursery, from 
fifteen thousand to sixteen thousand young trees, enough 
to plant between eight and nine acres of forest ; and if the 
seed costs only two dollars per pound — a low figure — the 
expense would be as great, if not greater, than to plant 
trees from the nursery. Again, it is utterly impossible to 
secure an even stand by this method. Many places will re- 
quire thinning, while others will have to be filled in. Be- 



ARTIFICIAL REFORESTATION 27 

sides, birds, mice, or squirrels may, and in many cases 
will, consume much if not all the seed. When all things 
are taken into consideration it is neither as economical nor 
in any way as satisfactory as planting in hills or raising 
trees in a nursery and setting them out. It has one redeem- 
ing feature, — the species can be selected. 

Planting in Hills. This is simply planting a few seeds 
in places where the trees are to stand in the forest, sub- 
stantially as a hill of corn is planted. The ground can be 
spaced off in some convenient and cheap way, so that the 
hills will be equidistant and the proper number placed on 
the ground. With a hoe or other implement the ground 
can be slightly loosened on the surface and the requisite 
number of seeds dropped in and a very light covering of 
soil drawn over them, unless nuts are planted. Three six- 
teenths of an inch is deep enough for most seeds with 
wings, but nuts should be planted from one to two and one 
half inches deep. If the ground is stony or rough, or ob- 
structions of any kind prevent regular spacing, the hills 
can be put in where conditions permit, for exact spacing is 
not essential. This system is well adapted to stony, rocky, 
or rough ground where it may be difficult to find suitable 
soil into which to transplant young trees. Furthermore, if 
the ground is that of a dry ridge or steep hillside, or any 
other place where the water soon disappears after a rain, 
seeds may germinate and trees grow, just as they do in 
natural seeding, when, if a tree were planted into such soil, 
there might not be enough moisture to give it strength to 
overcome the great shock it must endure in being trans- 
planted. 

The number of seeds to be dropped in a given place 
must be governed by the ascertained percentage of germ- 
ination. Ordinarily fifty per cent of coniferous seeds may 
be expected to grow in the nursery, but it will be well to 
put in not less than six — somewhat separated from each 
other — when planting for a forest, and when the little 



28 IMPORTANT TIMBER TREES 

trees are well established, all, except the most vigorous one, 
should be removed. If any vacant places should be found, 
they can be filled in with some of the surplus trees. Besides 
controlling the species this system insures an even stand, 
something which cannot be brought about by any other 
except planting trees, and in many places it will be prefer- 
able to that. It may do well if carried out immediately after 
a fire has killed all the growth of trees, shrubs, weeds, or 
grass. The greatest drawback to this method is, that if the 
ground is covered with weeds, grass, or bushes, these may 
suppress the young trees in their infancy. This objection 
may be overcome by clearing the ground, as for broadcast 
sowing, or removing for a foot or so whatever may be 
likely to suppress them. 

As there can be no strip, spot, or broadcast sowing with 
the seeds of nut-bearing trees, all such must be either 
planted in this way or the plants grown in a nursery and 
transplanted into the forest — a proceeding which is not 
always successful. Nearly all of them have a more or less 
prominent tap-root and some will not submit to its loss 
and thrive, and planting seeds of such where the trees are 
to grow is much the best way, if no suppression by over- 
shadowing growth is permitted. 

Growing Young Trees in a Nursery. The last method 
to be considered is planting the seeds in a nursery and, 
when the little trees are large enough, transplanting them 
into the forest where they are to grow to maturity ; and it 
is by no means the least important one. At first thought 
this may seem to entail an unnecessary expenditure of 
time and money. Experience, however, shows that there is, 
in the end, economy of both. There are cases, as hereto- 
fore shown, where other methods are best, but they are 
exceptional. Planting in hills is the only one that can be 
expected to approach it in satisfactory results; but if trees 
be grown in a nursery until they are three or four years 
old — the period of slowest growth of nearly all the coni- 



ARTIFICIAL REFORESTATION 29 

fers — and then transplanted into the forest, they are better 
able to cope with their adverse surroundings than if com- 
pelled to struggle for life when ill fitted to do so. 

To carry out this method the seeds are sown in beds in 
the nursery, carefully protected from drouth and too much 
sunshine, cultivated and defended from the encroachment 
of weeds and disease, and, when large enough, transplanted 
into the forest. With the pines and other conifers trans- 
planting is generally done when the trees are three or four 
years old, but with broadleaf trees most of them may be 
removed from the nursery when only one, two, or, at most, 
three years of age. 

This method of reforestation possesses the same advant- 
ages that broadcast sowing and planting in hills enjoy by 
giving full control over the species composing the forest. 
Only suitable ones need be grown. There need be no weed 
trees — species worthless for lumber. An even stand can 
be secured and the greatest yield of forest products ob- 
tained. As more trees should be planted in the forest than 
can ever reach maturity, — this to compel those that may 
be left to grow tall and drop their lower limbs, — the de- 
fective and less thrifty ones are discarded, as hereafter de- 
scribed, and the resultant stand will all be perfect trees. For- 
estry should be carried on along the same lines that other 
business enterprises are, and satisfactory results should be 
sought and obtained. The aim should be to secure the 
greatest value of forest from the smallest possible area, or, 
in other words, to secure the greatest peri>.entage of profit 
on the money invested, and perfect trees are more valuable 
than imperfect ones. 

An acre of virgin forest may have seventy-five mature 
trees standing upon it — the average is far less than that 
— and it may be assumed that it has taken that number of 
years for them to grow, or an equivalent of one tree a year. 
It may also be assumed that as fast as any are cut others 
will be naturally planted in their places so that the stand 
will remain the same. Another acre may have two hundred 



30 IMPORTANT TIMBER TREES 

similar trees, — the average number of a planted mature 
forest, — all to mature in seventy -five years and all to be 
replanted when removed, the same as the others. The first 
acre will yield one tree a year and the second two and two 
thirds trees in that time. It will cost no more to care for 
one than the other, and hence the profit must be in still 
greater ratio than their yield. Besides this, the character 
of the lumber grown in sparse or uneven stands and where 
open spaces occur is always inferior in quality to that 
grown where the trees are all tall and free from limbs. 

To be sure, growing trees in a nursery and transplanting 
them into the forests cause a greater expenditure at first, 
and that must be reckoned with ; but calculation will 
readily show that this increased cost, at compound interest, 
is not proportionately as great as the increased value of 
the product. Experience in countries growing artificial 
forests has led to a wide adoption of this system of repro- 
duction. Saxony is reputed to have one acre of forest nur- 
sery to every one thousand acres of forest, and in that 
kingdom will be found forests producing the greatest 
revenue. Switzerland has seven hundred and eighty acres 
of forest nurseries, and plants about twenty-two million 
trees each year. 

The absolute control of the species of trees composing 
the forest, the uniform and excellent quality of the lumber 
produced, the largely increased yield, the even age and 
size of the trees at maturity, together with the much greater 
certainty of securing a full stand, are features which chal- 
lenge serious consideration. 



FOREST DEMANDS 

Moisture. Moisture in the soil is as essential to tree- 
growth as it is to any of our farm crops. We cannot control 
the amount of moisture given us, but, to a great extent, we 
can so care for the forests that rain, and the water from 
melting snows, will not quickly flow off from the ground 
on which the trees stand, but be more or less retained and 
its presence in the soil of the forest extended over a much 
greater period of time. The claim that the presence of 
forests conduces to increased rainfall has never been con- 
clusively proved. Only observations extending over a long 
period of time, and over a reasonably large territory once 
covered with forests and afterwards denuded, or the re- 
verse, can determine that ; hence no such claim will be made 
in this discussion. The effort will be to show what can and 
should be done to utilize such water as may be granted us. 
It is well known that when the mineral soil has no covering, 
much of the water falling upon it runs off rapidly, and also 
that evaporation of what may be absorbed by it soon takes 
place. Observation has likewise shown that if the soil is 
covered with a loose, spongy coating of vegetable matter, 
neither run-off nor evaporation can go on so rapidly. 
Neither can evaporation proceed so swiftly in the shade, or 
where protected from the winds, as when the surface is ex- 
posed to every breeze that sweeps over the land. 

We know that trees and other vegetation must be supplied 
with water. Unless a supply can be furnished to the root 
hairs and cells there will be no sap to carry the mineral 
food to the leaves, and without that there can be no growth. 
As a rule there is a mean of water supply which must be 
maintained for most species to secure the best results, and 



32 IMPORTANT TIMBER TREES 

experience sliows that a departure from that mean almost 
invariably occurs on the side of an absence of a sufficient 
supply, and this brings us to a consideration of an import- 
ant feature connected with the growth of timber trees. 

The Forest Floor. When the ground is covered with a 
growth of trees, the twigs, leaves, branches, and dead trees 
which fall and decay produce, in time, a covering of a spongy 
character that not only is capable of itself retaining water 
but prevents its rapid run-off, thus giving it time to perco- 
late into the earth, which is always looser and more porous 
on account of such covering. From there it is absorbed, in 
part, by the roots of the trees and sent to the leaves, as 
elsewhere shown, and the supply of water is longer retained 
than when the naked mineral soil is exposed, — the greater 
part, howevei", entering the porous soil and supplying 
springs and streams with a gentle flow, — and thus in a 
large measure preventing excessive floods on the one hand 
and dried-up springs and stream-beds on the other. While 
some of the water is evaporated from the surface, that pro- 
cess goes on slowly where the ground is largely shielded 
from the sun and wind. This moisture-holding, spongy mass 
of decaying leaves and wood which covers the ground on 
which the trees grow is known as the Forest Floor, and its 
proper maintenance is of great importance. To produce 
and keep it satisfactorily the trees in the forest must stand 
close enough to shade the ground completely, and there 
must be enough decaying leaves and wood to provide an 
ample thickness. 

This decaying matter forms the well-known humus, that 
most valuable constituent of the soil which converts the 
disintegrated and decomposed rocks of the earth from com- 
parative barrenness into fertility. Mingled with the mineral 
earth, it forms the fertile soil. By its accumulation the 
ground is constantly enriched, and the forests thus pay an 
annual rental for the ground they occupy. In cultivated 
fields there is no such accumulation, and instead of a con- 
stant enrichment there is a continued drain upon its fer- 



FOREST DEMANDS 33 

tility by the growth and removal of crops and by erosion. 
If the forest has been growing long enough this decaying 
matter will be found mixed with the earth to quite a depth, 
changing it from barrenness into fertility and giving to it 
a porous character and a darker color. Not only does it add 
valuable chemical constituents to the soil, but the decaying 
vegetable matter acts mechanically in keeping the soil loose. 

The importance of maintaining a suitable forest floor 
cannot be too strenuously urged. When not amply pro- 
vided, the trees suffer, in part through lack of a continuous 
supply of moisture which is secured by its presence, and in 
part through failure to receive the elements of fertility 
which the leaves may secure from the atmosphere ; and the 
result of a failure to maintain this ground cover is always 
manifest in the slow growth of the trees of the forest. A 
typical productive forest is one where the crowns of the 
trees practically shut out the sunlight and where the ripened 
foliage, cast-off bark, and decaying wood so completely 
cover the ground as to prevent a rapid run-off of the water 
that may reach there, retaining a portion which, for a while, 
will supply the roots of the trees that are near the surface, 
and also pi'event the rapid evaporation which would occur 
were not such covering present. The necessity for preserving 
the forest floor intact was experimentally learned in Europe 
some time ago where the freshly fallen and decaying leaves, 
bark, and wood were, by permission, removed from the 
forests by the peasants. It was discovered in due time 
that the forest-growth was severely interfered with through 
such removal, and it was prohibited. Experience proves it 
is necessary to secure a complete covering of the ground by 
the foliage as early as possible in the life of a newly planted 
forest in order to prevent evaporation of moisture, and to 
hasten the time when the cast-off leaves, bark, and twigs 
will furnish the greatly needed protection for the ground. 
This, as well as to secure a growth free from limbs, ren- 
ders close planting necessary. 

The Forest Crown. While the forest floor is important, 



34 IMPORTANT TIMBER TREES 

the forest crown must not be overlooked. These two fea- 
tures of the forest are intimately connected with each other. 
The condition of the crown indicates the rapidity and vigor 
of growth of the body of the tree from which the lumber 
must be cut. If the trees are so great in number as to 
cause the roots seriously to rob each other of food and 
moisture, or if the forest floor does not completely protect 
the root system with decaying leaves and the like, then the 
growth of timber will be satisfactory in neither character 
nor amount. If the crown is so open as to allow weeds and 
grass to grow, that is evidence that there are not trees 
enough. The shade should be so dense as to suppress what- 
ever is not useful. If the trees are so close that there is not 
enough food or moisture to maintain a vigorous growth, and 
the tops of the trees show a diminution of annual height 
growth, or some trees are being suppressed, then there are 
too many and some should be removed. There should be an 
equilibrium preserved between root and crown. The condi- 
tion of the forest crown should be carefully observed, for 
there the first indication of lack of vigor or of injury or 
disease will manifest itself. While the twigs and leaves 
may not be the most vulnerable, they are the first to give 
the alarm. An insufficient supply of moisture to the roots 
will in a short time surely show itself in the crown. 

In mature age, and when the trees increase in height 
but slowly, — as will be the case in time, for there is a 
limit beyond which a tree will not grow in height, and that 
limit is gradually reached as it approaches maturity, — they 
may stand so far apart and the crown be so open that the 
sunshine can reach the forest floor and allow the grass to 
grow. If so the grass should not be fed off by stock. Even 
though the grass absorb moisture it does not rob the ground 
of food, if allowed to remain and decay, while its removal 
not only does that, but exposes the soil to more rapid eva- 
poration, and even erosion. There should be shade and 
covering for the forest floor and sunlight for the forest 
crown. 



FOREST DEMANDS 35 

Light. Light is absolutely necessary to the growth of 
trees. The result of closing the stoniata — the breathing- 
pores of the leaves — which an absence of light brings about, 
is elsewhere shown (page 70). But all trees are not alike 
in the amount of light they require to maintain a fairly 
vigorous growth. All will do best by having a proper 
amount, but some demand more than others ; or, to state it in 
another way, some can endure more shade than others. Those 
which can endure the most shade are termed " tolerant," 
in contradistinction to those which can endure little or none, 
and the latter are designated " intolerant." The need of 
light which some species manifest has greater significance 
when natural regeneration is depended upon than when a 
forest is established by sowing seeds or setting out trees. 
In the former many trees, whether tolerant or otherwise, 
may be driven out because the rapidly growing ones will 
suppress them with their shade ; and the fact that nearly all 
of the most valuable timber trees are light-demanding makes 
this possibility a feature which should not be overlooked. 
Most of the Oaks, the Pines, Spruces, Hickories, Elms, 
Ashes, Cherry, Basswood, Yellow Poplar, Larches, Chest- 
nut, and several others are more or less intolerant, while Sugar 
Maple, Beech, Hemlock, and a few others are more or less 
tolerant, and will thrive, after a fashion, in the shade of 
their own or other species. Hemlock will grow under a white 
pine, but a white pine will not thrive and reach a full 
growth in the deep shade of any tree. It can be easily deter- 
mined whether a tree is iptolerant of shade even when grow- 
ing in the open. If the small twigs and limbs, which at 
first grow next to the stem and large limbs, are dead or 
dying, and the leaves of the tree are mainly on the outer 
surface of the crown, or none of moment next the large 
limbs, the tree may be set down as intolerant to a great de- 
gree. Some trees, as Maple and Beech, may have nearly 
the whole top a quite dense mass of small limbs and twigs 
bearing leaves, while a White Ash, Cherry, or other intoler- 
ant tree will have the interior of its crown open and the 



36 IMPORTANT TIMBER TREES 

twigs and leaves all on or near the outer ends of the limbs. 
All species require more light in old age than in early life. 

DO FORESTS IMPOVERISH THE SOIL ? 

Soil exhaustion is a very important feature when con- 
sidering plant growth and should be well understood, and 
it is as well to know what demands are made upon the soil 
when we propose to grow a forest as when farm crops are 
to be produced. Investigations made in Bavaria show that 
an acre of wheat requires 27.9 pounds of potash and 22.7 
pounds of phosphoric acid, while an acre of beech forest 
demands only 13 pounds of potash and 11.9 pounds of phos- 
phoric acid, the wood-growth requiring about one half as 
much as the wheat. The diiference is more marked between 
potatoes and piue, the former exacting 79.5 pounds of pot- 
ash and 26.8 pounds of phosphoric acid per acre, while pine 
requires but Q.6 pounds of potash and 4.3 pounds of phos- 
phoric acid, the potatoes calling for eleven times more pot- 
ash and six times more phosphoric acid. The discrepancy 
is nearly as great in the demands for nitrogen, for 12 
pounds per acre for broadleaf trees and 80 pounds for 
potatoes.^ Conifers require less of the absolutely necessary 
food for tree-growth than deciduous trees. 

When we take into consideration the large amount of 
plant food given to the soil from tree-growth, one half of 
which is received from the atmosphere, and the amount 
drawn from the soil, — and what it calls for there is mainly 
obtained deep down in the earth, and below where most 
farm crop roots reach, — it will be seen why forests do not 

^ Were it not for the constant return to the soil, of potash, phosphoric 
acid, and nitrogen by the forest, this annual drain, by the trees, of the ele- 
ments of fertility would amount to a large sum during their growth, but by 
no means as great as would be the drain upon these elements by the farm 
crops for the same length of time, and with no compensating return what- 
ever. Dr. B. E. Fernow, in his Economics of Forestry (page 451), says : "In 
the average there are annually returned by the fall of leaves and litter in a 
dense forest from 1800 to 4500 pounds per acre, according to kind and con- 
dition of growth and soil, from 22 to 220 pounds of minerals, potash, phos- 
phoric acid, magnesia, lime, etc., and 12 to 60 pounds of nitrogen." 



FOREST DEMANDS 37 

impoverish the soil, but actually enrich it. Every one hav- 
ing had experience knows that newly cleared land is more 
fertile and more easily worked than fields long tilled, un- 
less the latter have been fertilized artificially. It is true that 
when the forest crop is harvested there is a large amount 
of wood removed, but no great quantity of the elements of 
fertility required for farm crops is taken away. The com- 
position of wood shows that. Approximately one half of the 
wood is carbon, forty-two per cent oxygen, six per cent 
hydrogen, and only one per cent nitrogen and the same 
amount mineral ash. The nitrogen and what potash and 
phosphoric acid there may be in the mineral ash are all the 
important elements of fertility for the agriculturist that are 
taken from the land from the time the tree springs from 
the seed until it is harvested, — and all that time it has 
been giving more to the soil in its decaying leaves than it 
has taken, — while a crop of wheat will take twice as much 
in one year and return nothing. Neither do trees require as 
much surface moisture as farm crops. While it is true that 
some of the water falling on the trees never reaches the 
ground and is evaporated from the leaves, twigs, and limbs, 
there is enough falling on it to keep it moist much longer 
than in the open field, owing to the protection of the sur- 
face, from the sun and wind, by the foliage and forest 
floor. 



VI 

DIFFICULTIES OF REFORESTATION 

It must be admitted that the reforestation of our cut- 
over and burned-over lands is beset with many difficulties. 
Few of our people have thought that we should ever be 
compelled to replace them by planting trees. We have 
given little or no attention to restoring our forests, and 
have allowed the very worst conditions to fasten themselves 
upon much of the area upon which the forests of the future 
must stand, and we now find ourselves confronted with 
difficulties which neither should nor would have occurred 
had proper measures been taken in time to avert them. 
That it will be expensive and difficult successfully to re- 
plant our cut-over and burned-over lands must not deter us 
from undertaking the work. Whether it will cost little or 
much, or whether it will be easy or difficult to bring about, 
cannot now be considered, for it is an absolute necessity. It 
is a duty which we cannot evade, for the prosperity of the 
nation is at stake, and wisdom dictates that we should 
make thorough investigation and adopt the best possible 
measures. 

The land upon which the forests of the future must grow 
can be divided into four classes, but the lines of demarc- 
ation are not very distinct. One class is where all tree- 
growth has been destroyed by the axe and repeated fires, 
and where nothing but bare ground or ferns, briers, weeds, 
and shrubs can be found. Such land has suffered greatly 
from having its humus practically destroyed and, in addi- 
tion, its fertility greatly lessened by erosion. In the main, 
such areas can be reforested with a fair chance of success 
if erosion has not gone too far ; but the growth will be slow 
for a long time, consequent upon the loss of fertility. The 



•v DIFFICULTIES OF REFORESTATION 39 

crop of weeds will somewhat interfere with and hinder the 
growth of the young trees that may be planted among 
them, but if fair-sized strong plants with good root devel- 
opment are selected, the weeds, unless very dense, will not 
seriously hinder. The cost of reforesting such areas will be 
as low as that of any, and less than some, but that will be 
offset by slow growth for several years. After the ground 
is well covered with the shade of the trees planted thereon, 
and a proper forest floor secured thereby, the growth will 
assume a natural vigor. 

Another class is land on which the total destruction of 
tree-growth has not occurred, but where worthless species 
predominate to the practical exclusion of all others, and 
where reforestation with valuable ones cannot occur until 
the objectionable ones are removed. Such land was un- 
doubtedly burned over after the lumberman had taken 
what he cared for, but the fires have not been so frequent or 
so severe as to destroy all tree-growth, and the result is that 
Fire Cherry, Trembling Aspen, Sumac, Scrub Oak, and 
other worthless stuff have sprung up and now cover more or 
less of the ground. In much of such territory this growth is 
so dense that no planting of valuable species underneath or 
among it should be expected to grow. It would be sup- 
pressed if planted. The seeds of these worthless species 
have been scattered over the land by the winds and birds, 
and as all are rapid growers in early life, they outstrip all 
valuable ones and take and keep possession of the ground. 
How to get rid of this encumbrance is not easily indicated, 
and each case should be dealt with according to its dis- 
tinctive conditions ; but the removal must be effected in 
some way before planting can be successful ; and the cost 
may be considerable. Probably the easiest and least expen- 
sive way, but most destructive to the fertility of the soil, 
would be to surround the area to be planted with a fire 
line cut wide enough to enable those in charge of the work 
to prevent fire escaping, and then burn over the tract as 
soon in early spring as possible, and at once set out strong 



40 IMPORTANT TIMBER TREES 

healthy plants or plant seeds. There would probably be 
some places where the fire would not kill all, or, if killed, 
all would not be consumed. In that case the axe must be 
used and the brush be piled and burned. As there may be 
adjacent territory that cannot be burned at this time, there 
will, no doubt, again be seeds of worthless species scattered 
on the tract planted ; but if the plants set out are vigorous 
and of good size, they will be able to hold their own in 
most cases. If not, and they are likely to be suppressed by 
the fast-growing intruders, then the intruders must be cut 
down. The farmer cannot permit weeds to choke out his 
crop, and no less can the forester allow it. 

Another way to prepare such ground for planting is to 
cut and pile the objectionable tree-growth in late fall or 
early spring and burn it without permitting the fire to run 
over the ground and destroy the humus, and in the spring 
to set out strong vigorous plants. This will save the humus 
that may have accumulated, but this method is expensive 
and there is danger that a new growth will come from 
sprouts, for there will be more vigor left in the roots than 
if the fire had done the work, and there will probably be 
some seeds remaining there which have failed to germin- 
ate for want of opportunity or time, and these will send up 
a new crop of pests. If the worthless stuff is sparse, quite 
likely cutting and burning will be the best plan. Condi- 
tions must determine which plan to adopt. 

There is another class of land from which, unfortunately, 
little can be expected at present, for those who have to do 
with it have not yet learned that we are in the beginning 
of a timber famine, or that the best time to reforest is im- 
mediately after the removal of the virgin stand, or even 
that there is any necessity for reforestation. It is where 
forests are being removed and where, if not promptly re- 
forested with valuable species, there will come a mixed 
growth of useless and valuable species, but over which the 
useless ones will, in time, assert and maintain supremacy 
and prevent satisfactory results. If planting on such terri- 




A VIEW IN THE FOREST OF PRINCE BISMARCK, 
FRIEDRICHSRiJHE, GERJL\NY 

Compartment line serves as Are line and road. Spruce, jilanted. 
Courtesy of Professor FUibert Roth. 




AN <»l.l> PLANTATION OF SPRUCE NEAR EISENACH 
Star-shaped rows. — Courtesy of Professor Filibert Roth. 



DIFFICULTIES OF KEFORESTATION 41 

tory is to follow removal of the forest it should be done at 
once, and before the seeds of worthless species can be sown. 
Cut the forest-growth clean, pile and burn the brush, but 
prevent fire from running over the tract, and either plant 
seeds or set out trees in early spring next after removal of 
the forest. If a year is allowed to elapse, a growth of stuff 
will spring up and the planted seeds or trees will have an 
unnecessary battle to fight, which may end in their defeat. 
If no planting is done, and fire does not run over the 
gi'ound, a growth of weed trees mingled with good species 
will come up, and the weed trees, being faster growers than 
the others, will suppress the useful ones, as elsewhere un- 
der like conditions, the same as on burned-over ground. 
Only prompt planting can bring success. This method is 
largely followed in Europe where intensive forestry is 
profitably carried on. 

There remains to be considered one other condition of 
the ground where planting trees is certainly advisable. That 
is in abandoned fields where there are few or no obstacles 
in the shape of tree-growth, and where grass and low weeds 
cover the ground. If there is a sod on the ground experi- 
ence shows that the young trees will usually do better when 
planted in it than when it has been ploughed under, unless 
a year or more elapses before planting, for if planted on 
newly turned sod the plants are liable to die through drain- 
age of the moisture from the roots into the open spaces 
surrounding the sods. Moreover, the vegetable mould of 
the sod, and the growth it supports, act as a cover to the soil 
and prevent rapid evaporation. Neither is it necessary to cut 
away or remove the grass and low weeds. Experience of the 
Pennsylvania Forestry Department has shown that young 
White Pines grow as well when the grass is not removed. 
It may, and doubtless is, advisable to plough ground and 
let the sod of the prairies rot before attempting to plant, 
and in such cases it will be advisable to cultivate the ground 
a few years after planting, and if the land is fertile low-grow- 
ing crops may be grown with the trees for one or two years. 



42 IMPORTANT TIMBER TREES 

The varying conditions which prevail on the cut-over 
lands of the country make it impossible to point out what 
is the best course to pursue without a careful examination 
of each case. The location, character of soil, species of trees 
to plant, and climatic conditions must be considered in 
each case ; and therefore only a general indication of the 
best method to pursue can be given. There is one rule, how- 
ever, applicable to all cases : the planted trees must not be 
suppressed by worthless species, and every advantage pos- 
sible should be given them. 



VII 

PLANTING THE FOREST 
SHOULD THE SPECIES BE MINGLED? 

If the necessity for planting forests to restore them where 
they ha ye been destroyed be admitted, — and it cannot be 
truthfully denied where productive forests no longer exist, 
— the method to be adopted becomes an important matter, 
and we naturally turn to see what Nature did when she 
grew them so abundantly. In the virgin forests of our 
country several species of trees demanding like conditions 
of climate, soil, and situation are found growing in close and 
intimate association. Broad leaf trees lock their limbs in ap- 
parently friendly embrace while they tolerate the conifers 
and are by them welcomed. But for all the apparent har- 
mony and good-fellowship, there is a silent but persistent 
struggle going on both in the air and under the ground for 
supremacy and even existence. All must have light, — some 
species more than others, — and nearly all more in old age 
than in youth. This strife never ceases and it ends in a vast 
number of fatalities. So, too, all must have mineral food 
and moisture, and the battle in the ground between the 
roots is more stubbornly contested than is that in the air 
between the leaves. In both cases a tree will contend with 
one of its own species or with that of another, and class will 
war with class. 

Neither does the conflict show any sympathetic spirit, nor 
are there any rules of warfare recognized, and the result is 
simply a survival of the strongest. When mature trees fully 
dominate the ground they practically suppress all young 
growth underneath their branches, and not until they fail 
from some cause can a new forest be grown. They give no 
opportunity for other trees to grow and rob them of light, 



44 IMPORTANT TIMBER TREES 

food, and moisture. And this struggle causes them to as- 
sume a different shape and form when growing in close 
proximity to unwelcome neighbors from that taken when 
not so crowded. In the effort to overtop their companions 
and obtain the needed light, they grow tall, their lower limbs 
die and drop off, and the result is that such trees become 
valuable for lumber — much more so than if grown in the 
open — and this warfare inures to the benefit of man- 
kind. We have thus far reaped the fruits of a conflict 
which has been constantly kept up in our virgin forests, 
and it will most certainly be to our advantage so to plant 
in the future that the contest for supremacy will be con- 
tinued. Naturally conditions of soil, climate, and location 
have caused certain species to segregate and grow by them- 
selves, or with others whose needs are similar. In some re- 
gions none but broadleaf trees can be found, in others those 
with needle-like leaves, — the conifers mainly, — while in 
others they are intermingled. 

It was seldom, except west of the Mississippi River, that 
the battle was fought to a finish, so that one species alone 
enjoyed any considerable area of ground, but where it has 
been the name of " Pure Stand" is applied, and where the 
forest is of mingled species it is known as a " Mixed Stand." 
The latter is the rule and the former the exception, and 
when we contemplate planting a forest we must determine 
which of the two systems we will adopt. In other words, we 
must decide whether we will mix conifers with broadleaf 
trees, or one species of conifers with another, or mingle 
broadleaf trees with each other, or those demanding light 
with those that are capable of enduring more or less shade, 
— for it is only in the struggle for light that we can con- 
trol, — or, on the other hand, whether we will keep separate 
or make close neighbors of light-demanding and shade- 
enduring trees. If we minsfle them at all we must decide to 
what extent and what species we will make close compan- 
ions and associates, even though it be against their wishes. 
All this must be taken into account when we plant the for- 



PLANTING THE FOREST 45 

est ; and in considering it we must not forget that we must 
so plant that each tree will be crowded and forced to grow 
into valuable lumber; and this involves the mingling or 
segregation of species, — as the case may be, — the distance 
apart the trees should be planted, whether alone or mixed, 
and also such subsequent treatment as will cause them to 
continue the struggle and yet make the most rapid growth 
possible. 

Unfortunately professional foresters are by no means 
agreed upon the best course to pursue. The claim put forth 
by those who advocate mingling the species, and planting 
tolerant ^ with intolerant ones, is based upon the fact that 
Nature mingles them in virgin forests, and that when a 
forest is destroyed by the axe of the lumberman or in any 
other way, she makes no discrimination either in species or 
toleration, but again plants them haphazard. It is also in- 
sisted that there may be a greater yield in a mixed forest of 
tolerant and intolerant trees than in a forest of one sort alone, 
because the tolerant ones can and do grow in the shade of the 
intolerants, and thus the ground can be made to produce a 
greater yield; and there is no doubt but that in naturally 
planted forests this is true. Beyond this it is argued that 
by mingling tolerant and intolerant trees a better shading 
of the ground can be brought about because the open crowns 
of the intolerant ones do not always afford a complete pro- 
tection to the forest floor ; and, finally, that a mixed forest 
is not so liable to be destroyed by insects or disease, or in- 
jured by winds, as where only one species is present. 

Those who oppose mixing conifers with broadleaf trees, 
or planting tolerant with intolerant ones of either class, 
insist that the mingling of all in our virgin forests is a mat- 
ter of accident instead of law or design ; that Nature has 
made ample provisions for sowing seeds of all kinds of 
trees through the agency of the winds or animals, and that 

^ As noted on page 35, a tolerant tree is one which can endure more or 
less shade and an intolerant one such as exacts the fullest light ; that is, one 
is shade-enduring and the other light-demanding. 



46 IMPORTANT TIMBER TREES 

seed distribution is carried on through what may truthfully 
be called accident or chance ; and that the species them- 
selves have no hand in it and cannot select their companions, 
and that seed must grow, if at all, where it falls ; hence that 
what may be seen in virgin forests should not necessarily 
be taken as a guide. 

It is further insisted by the opponents of mixed forests 
that experience with artificial ones abroad has shown that 
pure stands, or stands composed of trees of equal demand 
for light, mineral food, and moisture, produce the greatest 
yield, admitting, however, the greater liability of damage 
by disease, insects, or winds to a pure stand. With these and 
lesser arguments has the controversy been cari'ied on and 
it is still unsettled, and probably will not be determined 
very soon ; not until experience establishes what is best in 
this country with our varying conditions of soil, climate, 
species, and surroundings ; but in the mean time we should 
be guided as far as possible by what a study of our forests 
may reveal as indicating the system of planting most likely 
to lead to success. As stated, we know that in some cases 
Nature grows pure stands and in others she mingles the 
species to a greater or less extent, and successfully so in 
both cases ; and to assume that only one of these is in all 
eases the true one would manifestly be absurd. Hence we 
may choose as conditions and necessities may dictate ; but 
in making a choice we should not ignore the known laws 
of tree-growth. Elsewhere (page 35) has been shown the 
demand for light which all trees make. From what is there 
set forth it is manifest that if a rapidly growing tree is 
planted in close proximity to a slow-growing one the for- 
mer will suppress its neighbor to a greater or less degree. 
This is compensated, in part, by some trees endui-ing more 
shade than others, but that fact does not prove that those 
requiring less light than the others will grow better under 
the shade of more intolerant ones than if given full light. 
It only shows that the tolerant tree is accommodating itself 
to adverse conditions. Neither does it show that the more 



PLANTING THE FOREST 47 

rapidly growing tree is benefited by the close companion- 
ship of a slow-growing one. Therefore we may safely as- 
sume that for trees demanding like soil, climatic conditions, 
and situations, rapidity of growth must, in the main, be the 
governing factor in determining whether or not to mingle 
species, although the demand for moisture — broadleaf 
trees, when in full leaf, requiring more than needle-leaf ones 
— and the protection of the forest floor should not be lost 
sight of. There is no known law of tree-growth violated in 
planting either pure or mixed stands if rapidity of growth 
of the species and their demands for light, moisture, and 
food be equal. 

The claim that any one species has a greater aversion to 
members of its own household than to that of others is 
remotely tenable if at all. It is probably true, however, 
that as some species require less moisture or less mineral 
food than others, or draw from the soil different food ele- 
ments, they may be more acceptable neighbors than those 
of like species. But of this we know little or nothing, and 
we may safely assume that it will be well to plant pure 
stands, or, if mixed, mingle such as grow equally rapidly 
and vigorously in the same situation. ^ 

It is also claimed that a slow-growing tree may be set 
out in the forest and allowed to grow for a time and then 
a more rapidly growing one be placed along with it to 
serve as a "nurse" tree. If we could even approximately 
determine the time that should elapse between the plant- 
ings, this plan might work well, — if there were anything 
to be gained, an assumption not well founded, — but we 
do not know accurately enough the difference in rapidity of 

^ A. C Forbes, in his recently published Development of British Forestry 
(page 187), says: ''At the present time there are three fairly distinct 
systems in operation in the British Isles — even-aged forest, coppice with 
standards, and the system of selective felling or uneven-aged high forests, 
■which is worked more often to suit the convenience of the owner than in 
the interests of good forestry. The first system is practically the only sound 
system to adopt when returns in the shape of high-class timber are ex- 
pected." This system is now being generally adopted in European forests. 



48 IMPORTANT TIMBER TREES 

growth of many of our valuable timber trees to determine 
when to make the second planting. Some species grow 
slowly in early life and others rapidly during that period, 
and the growth of all is more or less controlled by char- 
acter and conditions of soil and other surroundings. We 
have no need for guesswork when we know that under like 
conditions members of each species make practically the 
same growth in the same time. By planting a pure stand 
we know we can control the growth of trees to an almost 
absolute certainty, and such control is of more value than 
a possible avoidance of disease, or a possible injury to the 
forest floor; and with our present dearth of knowledge of 
the peculiarities of the rapidity of growth of our timber trees 
it will be safe to plant in pure stands, or in mixed stands of 
equal rapidity of growth. Different species may be put in 
clumps or clusters, but even then such as may be so planted 
would best be of substantially the same rapidity of growth, 
so that the forest will mature evenly and can be harvested 
on a systematic rotation .^ 

^ An illustration of the result of mingling fast-growing species with slow- 
growing ones recently came under the author's observation. Several rows of 
Shortleaf Pine {Pinus echinata) and Southern Hard Maples of the same 
age had been set out in alternate rows, about five feet apart, in an aban- 
doned field, at the same time. The Maples had grown vigorously and were 
from ten to twelve feet high, hut the associated Pines were substantially 
all dead, and what few were left were stunted and sickly. Only fifteen 
feet from the outside row of Maples were several rows of Pines, stand- 
ing alone, which were of the same age as the others and had been planted 
at the same time, and they were vigorous and fully seven feet high. The 
only difference in treatment had been that when alone the Pines had no 
faster growing companions to suppress them with shade or rob them of food 
or moisture. 



VIII 

WHERE AND WHAT TO PLANT 

In general terms the area of the United States may be 
classed as tree-bearing and treeless regions. Much of the 
tree-bearing portion has been denuded of its forest cover 
to allow the land to be cultivated, and other portions to 
supply the needed forest products. Except in the case of 
the farmer's woodlot no part of the tree-bearing area that 
is suitable for cultivation should be reforested ; but it is 
manifest that such as is not suitable for agriculture would 
best be, and to choose what species to plant on any given 
area is a very important matter. Broadly speaking, it 
would be safest to plant such as originally grew there, but 
that is not always easily determined, nor would it always 
be advisable. 

It must not be supposed that any great proportion of the 
nearly five hundred species of trees indigenous to the United 
States possesses any commercial value as timber trees, or 
that many of them are worthy of cultivation. A very large 
majority of them may be set down as worthless for any 
economic purpose beyond acting as a cover to the soil, pre- 
venting erosion, and, to some extent, aiding in bringing 
about an equable flow of springs and streams. Some once 
esteemed of little value are now being largely used. This 
arises in part from a growing scarcity of better species, in 
part from the discovery of their value in comparatively new 
industries, and in part from improved methods of manu- 
facture ; and while some are not strictly timber trees their 
value for other purposes gives them an economic import- 
ance that should not be ignored when considering the im- 
portant trees of our country. Combining those that are 
useful for what is known as lumber with those used for 



50 IMPORTANT TIMBER TREES 

other purposes, we certainly have a large list worthy of 
consideration, notwithstanding that we must discard a great 
number of species. There should be no anxiety felt about 
that. The difficulty lies in selecting those best adapted to 
the soil, situation, and climatic conditions of the area to be 
forested, coupled with due consideration of the purposes 
for which they are to be planted, and the demands and 
needs of the country for forest products. We must not 
overlook the fact that there will always be a greater de- 
mand for certain kinds of lumber than for others, and this 
should have its weight in determining the selection of 
species. As is well known, certain species of trees are found 
in certain localities. Such localities are called the tree's 
natural range or home. A tree may, and frequently will, 
grow outside of that locality, and, if so, this enlarged area 
is known as its botanical range — a region in which it 
may grow fairly or equally as well as in its original home. 
White Pine grows as well in Central Europe as here, its 
home, while our Red Oak becomes more valuable there 
than with us. 

It is certainly clear that in choosing a species one native 
to the locality should be selected, or one that will grow as 
well as in its native home, or as the one originally occupy- 
ing the ground ; provided, however, that the tree is such 
as will meet commercial or other needs. None should be 
chosen without careful consideration. It may be thought 
that specific instructions should be given as to where and 
what to plant. That would be impossible to do safely with- 
out personal examination of the designated area. Soil, loca- 
tion, climate, and the object sought must all be taken into 
consideration, and that cannot be done "at arm's length," 
In describing, in the following pages, the various species 
of our important timber trees careful effort has been made 
to set forth the natural range, soil, region of best develop- 
ment, and general characteristics of each species, from 
which the attentive reader may form an approximately in- 
telligent opinion. If, after a thorough study of the case, 



vVHERE AND WHAT TO PLANT 51 

which should include an investigation, of the species of 
trees that formerly occupied the ground, he still have 
doubts, it would be best to call in an educated forester, 
just as he would any other professional man whose services, 
on account of his own lack of knowledge, he might find 
himself in need of ; for a mistake in this cannot be cor- 
rected. But to avoid mistakes and achieve success the future 
tree-grower should possess a general knowledge of the life- 
history of trees, what they demand, how they must be 
grown to produce valuable lumber, and the object for 
which any one or more species should be planted. To a 
reasonable degree we should all become practical foresters. 
We must not, however, neglect to speak of that other 
portion of our national domain known as the treeless re- 
gion. There we encounter a vastly different condition. In 
a large portion of this now treeless area no trees can be 
grown except by irrigation. This is owing to absence of 
rainfall, and all such cases must be considered independently 
and according to surrounding conditions. Then there are 
sections of the country, now treeless, where trees have been, 
and, no doubt, others where they may be, profitably planted 
and prove a reasonable success. This is especially true of 
what is generally known as the central treeless region, em- 
bracing part of the states of Illinois, Iowa, North Dakota, 
South Dakota, Nebraska, and Kansas, the prairie district of 
Minnesota, and portions of Oklahoma and Texas lying west 
of the hardwood belt. In this region planting is generally suc- 
cessful, but experience — and that can be the only guide 

— shows that there ai'e but few species suited to any loca- 
tion, and experience must be the guide in selecting these. 
Throughout that region trees have, thus far, been planted 
for shelter, general farm purposes, — as posts, poles, etc., 

— and fuel, because these are pressing necessities, and rap- 
idly growing species have been chosen, few of which are of 
much importance for lumber. The list is mainly composed 
of Silver Maple, Cottonwood, Black Walnut, Box Elder, 
Willows, Ash, — largely Green Ash, — Elms, and Hardy 



52 IMPORTANT TIMBER TREES 

Catalpa. Few of the conifers — the softwoods — appear 
to flourish there, European Larch doing as well as any. 
Fully seventy per cent of the plantations is of the broadleaf 
species. The tree-planter in that region should carefully 
feel his way, and local experience should be his guide. 
There has Ijeen considerable planting done in the states 
named, much of which has been successful, and in deter- 
mining what to plant this success should be of value. 



IX 

WHEN TO HARVEST 

In determining the age and dimensions at which a forest- 
grown tree should be harvested for lumber there are cer- 
tain features of tree-growth which must be taken into con- 
sideration, if the greatest profit is to be realized. These 
are (1) the ratio of annual increase of available wood ; (2) 
the waste in manufacture dependent upon size ; (3) the 
character and quality of the lumber, as affected by age and 
size ; and (4) the age at which compound interest on the 
investment overtakes the increase in value, whether from 
growth or increase in price, or both. The first may be de- 
termined mathematically, assuming that conditions of taper 
of stems and freedom from limbs are alike. The second 
and third may be approximately determined at any time, 
while the last is entirely dependent upon the cost of the 
investment and value of the product in market at the time 
it is suggested that the forest be cut. 

(1) Except for a few unimportant purposes no tree can 
be said to have a value in market if cut when it is less than 
five inches in diameter two and one haK feet above the 
ground, a size when it may be said to enter the pole stage. 
As it grows above that size it can be used for various pur- 
poses, and the number of these purposes increases as the 
tree grows larger and it finally passes from the pole and 
tie class and enters upon that of the sawmill class. At all 
diameters from five inches up to the time of its maturity, 
the amount of wood the tree contains plays a commanding 
part when determining its value and the time it should be 
cut, and a knowledge of the amount and the ratio of the 
tree's increase is essential when deciding to what dimen- 



54 



IMPORTANT TIMBER TREES 



sions it should be allowed to grow, if other features named 
do not interfere. 

In order to illustrate the increase in growth and to de- 
termine the ratio of that increase, it will be assumed that 
the tree selected for illustration is one of the fast-growing 
species, as some of the pines, and regularly increases one 
fourth of an inch in diameter each year, or puts on an an- 
nual layer of one eighth of an inch in thickness. It is 
manifest that a slow-orowiner tree will not increase in con- 
tents as rapidly, but the ratio of increase, when based on 
age, will, if the growth is uniform, show the same results. 

The accompanying table shows the diameter of a tree at 



Diameter 


Age 


Square of Diame- 


Area of Stump 


Increase 


Inches 


Years 


ter, Inches 


Square Inches 


Times 


5 


20 


25 


19.63 


0.00 


6 


24 


36 


28.27 


1.44 


7 


28 


49 


38.48 


1.96 


8 


32 


64 


50.26 


2.56 


9 


36 


81 


63.61 


3.24 


10 


40 


100 


78.54 


4.00 


11 


44 


132 


95.03 


4.84 


J5 


48 


144 


113.09 


5.76 


13 


52 


169 


132.73 


6.76 


14 


56 


196 


153.93 


7.84 


15 


60 


225 


176.71 


9.00 


16 


64 


256 


201.06 


10.24 


17 


68 


289 


226.98 


11.56 


18 


72 


324 


254.46 


12.96 


19 


76 


361 


283.52 


14.44 


20 


80 


400 


314.16 


16.00 



every inch of growth from five up to twenty inches, the 
age corresponding to such diameter, the square of that dia- 
meter, the number of square inches in area where the 
diameter is taken, — which is at the stump, — and the ra- 
tio of increase of wood contents of the tree from the five- 
inch up to the twenty-inch diameter. It will be seen that 
the ratio of increase is based on the mathematical fact that 
the areas of circles are to each other as the squares of their 
diameters — in this case that of the tree's stump. Thus a 



' - 'Tiiiii'i^ 



(P '^. . •iJK, 










SECOND-GROWTH WHITE PINE, ABOUT THIRTY YEARS OLD 

* Jefferson County, Pennsylvania. 



WHEN TO HARVEST 55 

tree with a diameter of five inches at the stump contains 
only one fourth as much wood as one of ten inches, for the 
squares of their diameters are in that ratio; the number of 
square inches in area of each proves the fact, and the same 
law applies to all other dimensions. For instance : a tree 
twenty inches in diameter contains 1.77 times more wood 
than one fifteen inches, for the square of their diameters 
and the number of square inches in their areas are in that 
ratio. The application of this rule gives an easy and cer- 
tain method of determining the relative values of different 
trees. One has only to square their diameters and divide 
the greater by the less to determine it. An examination 
of the table shows how rapidly the available wood of a tree 
increases by age and the importance of allowing a tree to 
enlarge its diameter. The table is limited to eighty years, 
for the annual growth usually begins to lessen then, but 
the principle is applicable to any diameter, irrespective of 
age. 

(2) Lumber manufacturers well know that the relative 
proportion of waste in slabs and edgings is much greater in 
a small than in a large log. Most of them use rules and 
tables giving the number of board feet that can be cut 
from logs of given sizes, but these take into consideration 
all kinds of waste, such as crooks, lack of cylindrical form 
of logs, and other causes, and hence such will not serve 
our purpose here, where we are discussing only the relative 
waste arising from different sizes. It is a mathematical 
fact that the bark surface on a small log is proportionally 
greater, when compared with its contents, than on a large 
log. The ratio of waste between small and large sizes is 
the reverse of that of the wood contents. The circumfer- 
ence — the bark surface — of a log twenty inches in diam- 
eter is only twice that of one ten inches, while the con- 
tents — the wood — of the twenty-inch log is four times 
that of the ten-inch one, which fact gives an approximate 
idea of the relative waste. 

(3) As the ratio of waste lessens as the tree advances in 



56 IMPORTANT TIMBER TREES 

size, the quality and character of the himber cut from it 
increase in value. This is generally known by manufac- 
turers, dealers, and consumers. Illustrating this fact, Mr. 
Edward A. Brainiff, in Forest Service Bulletin No. 73, 
page 20, 1906, says : " The quality of lumber in a tree 
increases rapidly as the tree increases in size. An eighteen 
inch tree would hardly be profitable to cut with Yellow 
Poplar averaging $23 per thousand. At nineteen inches 
it would yield an average profit of eighty-two cents per 
thousand; twenty inches, $1.32; at twenty-one inches, 
$1.99; at twenty-two inches, $2.67." Without doubt part 
of this increase in value comes from the increased propor- 
tion of heartwood to sapwood, and part from some chem- 
ical change taking place in the former. This would be true 
of all the pines and many of the hardwoods. The change 
from sapwood to heartwood is not so beneficial in some of 
the hardwoods, especially Sugar Maple and the Hickories, 
as with Walnuts, Oaks, Cherry Gums, and some others. 
As a rule, however, the value of wood increases with the age 
of the tree. 

(4) To determine the period when compound interest on 
the investment overtakes the accretion in a planted forest 
is a more difficult matter. European experience shows that 
from the time of planting up to the age of sixty or seventy 
years for Pine, Spruce, Larch, and some other conifers, and 
sixty or seventy for broadleaf trees, the accretion is greater 
in value than the accumulated cost of planting, care, and 
compound interest on the investment, but that after the 
periods named the interest account increases more rapidly 
than the value of the annual growth. But notwithstanding 
this fact the cost of labor and the price of forest products 
in the markets must largely if not entirely prevail in 
determining when to harvest; and these cannot be known 
until met. There are many uses for wood when old age on 
the part of the trees is not so essential as it is for saw tim- 
ber, and in such cases harvesting can be undertaken much 
earlier. Still, it must be remembered that to cut a tree for 



WHEN TO HARVEST 57 

one railroad tie when, by waiting a few years, it will yield 
two or more, or cutting wood for pulp when, by waiting 
another decade, it would yield more than twice the amount, 
is not good business. 



X 

THE WOODLOT 

To grow trees for fuel and farm purposes is just as much 
in the line of forestry as to grow them for lumber, and in 
some respects of more vital importance, especially so to the 
farm-owners of the country. Fuel is an absolute necessity, 
and while it is abundant at present, it certainly cannot remain 
so for long. More than two thirds of our people use wood 
for fuel, and while the remainder have now either natural 
gas or coal they must not flatter themselves that those who 
are to come after them will long be blessed with an ample 
supply of either commodity. In fact, it is well known that 
coal and gas are being rapidly exhausted, and in many sec- 
tions will become entirely so during the life of the present 
generation. Competent authorities put the limit for anthra- 
cite coal at from seventy-five to one hundred years. Long 
before that time it will become so high-priced as to be be- 
yond the reach of all but the wealthy. Even our immense 
fields of bituminous coal are not expected to last much 
longer than the middle of the next century. As it has largely 
been in the past, so must it be in the future, that wood will 
be the main dependence for fuel. 

The National Conservation Commission made report to 
President Roosevelt that there were fully one hundred mil- 
lion cords of wood consumed annually in this country for 
fuel alone. Supposing that from the average acre of the 
woodlots of the country there could be cut twenty-five cords, 
— which is probably too high an estimate, — that means 
the equivalent of clearing oif the trees from four million 
acres of land per annum for fuel alone, to say nothing of 
the amount cut for posts, poles, or other timber about the 
farms. 



THE WOODLOT 59 

Besides the fuel that the farmer must have he stands in 
constant need of all sorts of timber for general farm pur- 
poses, and there is no more reason why he should send far 
from home for these when he can produce them on his own 
land than that he should depend upon other regions, or upon 
some other than his own country, for his food supply. It is 
as much in the line of his interests to grow trees as to grow 
hay, grain, or other farm crops. That he has neglected to do 
this in many sections of the country, and is still neglecting 
it, is due, no doubt, to the general and widespread belief 
that there is an ample supply of forest products, and some 
to spare, and that there need be no effort made to grow 
them. But if he has not already learned the contrary he 
soon will. Experience will be a dear school in this case, and 
will teach him what observation should have done in years 
gone by. Hereafter he must grow trees, else he will pay a 
high price for his fuel and lumber, or go without. He must 
accept one or the other horn of the dilemma, and it is for 
him to choose. 

It is undoubtedly within the domain of fact that there are 
not five farms in a hundred in our country that do not have 
on them from one to twenty or more acres of land that are 
practically unfit for profitable agriculture, land that is 
unprofitable for cultivation for ordinary crops, but is well 
suited for growing trees. Steep hillsides should never be 
ploughed if it can be avoided. The erosion going on in such 
cases in this country is a very serious matter. We hear 
much of the conservation of our natural resources, but in 
all the din and clamor raised over their destruction but 
little is said of this greatest of all losses — that of the fer- 
tility of the soil by erosion, which is going on in the culti- 
vated and barren fields of this country. Yet we know that 
every year adds to the already large number of worn-out 
farms in the older sections, and the loss of fertility from 
erosion is far greater than exhaustion from the growth of 
crops. Whenever a stream of roily water flows from a tract 
of land it carries with it the most fertile portion of the soil. 



60 IMPORTANT TIMBER TREES 

All this loss of fertility of land unfitted for agriculture, 
yet subject to serious erosion, can be avoided by planting 
it to trees ; and instead of its growing poorer from year to 
year, it will be constantly increasing in fertility, and a 
greater profit from forest products will be secured than if 
cultivation is attempted. 

The species of trees of which a woodlot should be com- 
posed need not vary far from those suitable for the pro- 
duction of lumber. It is true that not all such are the best 
for fuel ; in fact, the reverse is somewhat the case, for those 
which grow most rapidly, and therefore will bring the 
quickest return in lumber, do not make the best fuel ; 
yet there are few of these that will not produce a very fair 
article if the wood is properly seasoned and kept under 
cover after being cut. Weight for weight there is little 
difference in calorific energy in the wood of our best 
timber trees. Such species, then, should be chosen for the 
woodlot as will best serve for all purposes, — for lumber, 
fuel, posts, and the like. Fitness of species for the location 
must be a paramount consideration, a matter discussed 
elsewhere. So, too, the method of growing tree plants and 
transplanting them has been explained. Such treatment as 
is suitable for forest culture is likewise suitable for culture 
for the woodlot. Trees, however, that will make good fuel 
when advisable to cut them, may be profitably gi-own in 
rows or clumps for wind-screens, but such will not be worth 
much for lumber because studded with limbs from the 
ground up. 

If the farmer possesses a woodlot of any sort its con- 
ditions and possibilities should first be carefully considered. 
It may be possible to maintain or even restore it by natural 
reforestation, if not too badly cut over ; but the chances are 
largely against that method. To bring that about it must 
be a close approach to a virgin forest or one in which the 
cutting has been done judiciously. It is not claimed that 
selective cutting and natural regeneration cannot be as 
sviccessfully carried on in a woodlot as in a virgin forest, 



THE WOODLOT 61 

but such a condition of the woodlots of our country as would 
permit that does not prevail to any great extent ; they would 
last for a time but fail at no distant period. It is easy to 
make it appear from returns that a forest or woodlot is 
paying well, but if either is cut faster than it grows the 
end is bankruptcy. When there is not a full stand of young 
growth, properly and evenly distributed, the end must come 
in time, and that time will be determined by consumption. 

If the woodlot has been pastured, or if, from other causes, 
young growth has been destroyed, hope of a restoration by 
natural processes should not be entertained, even though 
seed trees may be left standing, as the probabilities are that 
grass and weeds have so completely invaded the forest floor 
that germination of seeds will seldom occur, if at all. Under 
such conditions it may be advisable to plant trees on an 
entirely new piece of ground fit for nothing else, or to renew 
the stand on the existing one by growing or purchasing 
plants and setting them out in vacant places. Unfortunately 
the practice on woodlots, as well as elsewhere, is to cut the 
best instead of the defective trees. Where this has occurred 
it may and doubtless would be best to remove all or much 
of the present growth, even though the wood be cut and 
carefully stored for future use, and then plant a new stand 
of desirable species. It will be frequently found that a few 
trees with wide-spreading branches may shade large areas. 
Such should be removed to give light to any growth that 
may be coming on naturally, or that may be planted. In 
some cases it may be desirable to plant certain species in 
partial shade, removing the overshadowing ones as soon as 
the young growth indicates a necessity. 

No special methods of growing a woodlot different from 
those for growing a forest for timber are required. The same 
ends are to be sought and the same methods should prevail, 
for the same principles govern in each ease. The object 
in each is to obtain the greatest amount of valuable wood 
products in the least time and at the least exj)ense. The 
same reasons exist for planting desirable species for one as 



62 IMPORTANT TIMBER TREES 

for the other, and the same necessity for their control is 
ever present. There can be little question but that the 
owner of a woodlot would find it to his interest to clear at 
once more or less of it of any worthless stuff that may be 
there and plant trees or seeds of such species as will suit 
his purpose and location. There is no more reason why he 
should permit useless trees to grow in his woodlot than there 
is for permitting weeds to grow in his cultivated fields. 

A little reflection will show that close planting in the 
woodlot will be equally as profitable as in the forest, for 
the reason that then there will prevail the best conditions 
for merchantable timber, if trees are left for that purpose, 
and the thinnings will provide fuel and wood for other pur- 
poses. By this method there will be secured the fullest 
yield possible. To leave the distribution of the trees to 
chance, as in the case of naturally planted forests, should 
be no more contemplated than for a farmer to use a seed 
drill that will not do its work properly. 

The restoration and perpetuation of the woodlot must be 
the work of its owner. He cannot afford the services of an 
expert forester, but must learn for himself just the same, 
if he be a farmer, as he has learned to do all other things 
connected with his farm. He should no more depend on 
unaided Nature to bring forth his fuel, posts, poles, lumber, 
and other forest products without his supervision and care 
than he should depend upon her to provide him with hay, 
grain, and fruit without his direction and labor. He may 
and should be able to grow his own timber and fuel, and 
some to dispose of to others. 



XI 

LIFE-HISTORY OF A TREE 

Preliminary to discussing tree-life it may be interest- 
ing to the student in forestry to know that by taking ad- 
vantage of certain laws governing its growth a tree can be 
made to assume, when mature, such a form as to produce 
practically all desirable forest products of its kind, but if 
left to chance for its guidance it may be of little economic 
value. In one case it may be tall, straight, and free from 
limbs for a large part of its height, while in the other it 
will be short in stem, with many large limbs from near the 
ground up. In one the wood has been deposited in the 
stem where it is available for lumber, and in the other in 
the limbs where it is not. Either of these conditions can 
be brought about when the causes which produce each are 
understood and the requisite conditions are provided. Na- 
ture produces both kinds of trees, and we have but to 
choose as our needs demand and then obey her laws. 

This being the case a knowledge of the laws governing 
tree-life becomes highly essential, and profitably to grow 
and care for a forest one should possess a general know- 
ledge of the Life-History of a Tree. An endeavor to give 
that history and the laws which govern tree-growth will be 
here made, discarding all technical terms possible and using 
only those for which there is no substitute. 

Flowers and Fruit. The life-history of a tree may be 
said to begin with the buds which produce the flowers and 
fruit. The flower may be what is termed a " perfect " one, 
— capable within itself of producing a fertile seed, — or 
the organs which perform the functions of fertilization may 
be in separate flowers, one bearing stamens and the other 
pistils, being termed respectively staminate (male) and 



64 IMPORTANT TIMBER TREES 

pistillate (female). The stamiuate flowers fux-nish the pol- 
len or fecundating dustlike substance which fertilizes the 
ovary or seed of the pistillate flower. A grain of this pollen 
must in some way come in physical contact with an ovary 
of the pistillate flower or there will be no fertile seed. 
When mature the pollen is borne from the staminate to 
the pistillate flower by winds or insects, such as flies, wasps, 
bees, moths, butterflies, and the like. Nature is very prodi- 
gal in the supply of pollen. Probably more than a million 
grains are furnished where only one does any work. Not 
only is there an enormous amount of pollen in each male 
flower, but there are far more male than female flowers on 
most trees. This is particularly so with Walnut, Hickory, 
Chestnut, and White Pine. Some of our valuable timber 
trees, as Yellow Poplar (Tulip-tree), Basswood, and Elm, 
have perfect flowers, but on most, as with all the Pines, 
Oaks, Hickories, Chestnuts, and others, the male flowers 
are borne on separate sprays of the same tree, yet there 
are some species in which only male flowers are borne on 
one tree and only female on another. This is notably so 
with the Ashes and Poplars. 

Sowing the Seed. When the pistillate flower is fertil- 
ized the seed grows on to maturity, ripens, and is ready to 
be cast off from the parent tree and begin its independent 
active life in the reproduction of its kind. But to do this 
the seed must be scattered where its surroundings are suit- 
able and congenial for its growth, and come in contact with 
the mineral soil where it can germinate and grow. How the 
selection of a suitable place in which to grow comes about 
through natural processes is very interesting. If not scat- 
tered there would be no extension of the forests. If no 
provisions were made for this the seeds would fall under 
the parent tree where, if they should germinate, they could 
not live long for want of light, moisture, and food. But 
Nature has amply provided for the spread of seeds, as has 
already been noted. In a large class of trees — in which 
are nearly all the conifers and many broadleaf trees — she 





SEEDLING WHITE ASH, ONE SPRAY AND STAMINATE BLOSSOMS OF 
YEAR OLD SHOWING DE- WHITE PINE 

VELOPMENT OF TAP-ROOT 





DEVELOPMENT OF AVHITE PINE SEEDS 

At right are staminate blossoms, next pistillate blossoms, then mature cone, 
and at extreme left open cone with scale below showing seeds. 



LIFE-HISTORY OF A TREE 65 

has given wings to the seeds so that when they are ripe and 
fall the winds will blow them away to other localities. In 
some cases, as with the Aspens, Willows, and Birches, they 
are borne miles from their native place, thus permitting 
undesirable trees to spread themselves and crowd out more 
valuable ones. With another class, the nut-bearing trees, 
she calls in various animals — squirrels, mice, birds, etc. — 
to spread the seeds. These, in their endeavor to store food, 
drop the seeds on the way to their storehouses, or bury 
them, and through loss of memory of the location, or by 
some accident or fright, the seeds are left to germinate and 
grow. Small fruit, cherries and the like, are eaten by the 
birds and thus scattered, as the hard kernel in the shell of 
the fruit can pass through their digestive apparatus unin- 
jured and even seem to germinate the better for such 
treatment. To add to the certainty of reproduction, Nature 
supplies a vastly greater number of seeds than are needed. 
If one in ten thousand grows she is satisfied. But man can 
aid her by gathering them and planting as many as, and 
no more than are required, thus subjecting rejjroduction to 
comparative certainty while practicing economy, both of 
which she seems to scorn. 

Germination. When the seed is fully ripened and lodged 
in a fit place, and the demands for moisture, temperature, 
and covering complied with, the germ — the life-producing 
feature, about which we know absolutely nothing except 
its manifestation — asserts its personality and begins the 
development of the tree. This bursting into life is called 
germination. At first a growth is thrown downward into 
the ground to obtain the necessary mineral food and water, 
and this movement is soon after succeeded by another up- 
ward into the air, there to secure certain food from the at- 
mosphere and to enjoy light. The first or downward growth 
is called the root development, and the other — the unfold- 
ing of the stem or trunk, with its branches and leaves — 
the crown development. For a time the growth of both 
root and stem is sustained by food that has been stored in 



66 IMPORTANT TIMBER TREES 

the seed during its growth from the fertilized ovary to ma- 
turity, the same as a bird or a chicken will live for the first 
few days of its life on the substance of the egg from which 
it sprung. 

The root insists on darkness and the stem on light, and 
neither can be made to abandon that determination, nor 
can the root be made to grow upward or the stem down- 
ward. The functions of the root are twofold. One is to 
gather the moisture — the sap — and with it the necessary 
mineral food held in solution therein — potash, lime, phos- 
phoric acid, etc. — which constitute approximately one half 
the weight of the tree, and to send these up through the 
little pores or ducts in the roots, stem, and branches to the 
leaves, where they meet with the food the leaves gather 
from the atmosphere, and where the two combine and are 
practically digested through the agency of a green sub- 
stance known as chlorophyl, — a process which is wonder- 
ful and not fully understood, — producing a perfect food 
for stem, limbs, roots, bark, leaves, flowers, and fruit, to 
each of which it is sent in a mysterious way. The other 
function of the root is to hold the tree upright. 

As the roots penetrate the soil they throw out little hairs 
covered with microscopic mouths to suck in the moisture 
containing the dissolved mineral food which they seek ; and 
the roots travel abroad in the ground in search of it, going 
a great distance. A tree growing in the open will send its 
roots out as far as, and sometimes farther than, its limbs 
extend, while they have been known to go downward more 
than twenty feet. After a season's growth these little hairs 
mainly die and the tree takes a rest, and in a certain class 
called deciduous trees the leaves die also and drop off an- 
nually. With some evergreens the leaves stay on several 
years, but all of our timber trees, except those growing in 
the tropics, insist on taking a rest a part of each year. Few 
new hairs with their cells grow on that portion of the roots 
once occupied by them, but a new growth of roots must 
take place each year, springing out from those of former 



LIFE-HISTORY OF A TREE 67 

years ; thus the roots become elongated, but in a different 
manner from what occurs with the limbs. The new growth 
of roots, as well as that of the buds, leaves, twigs, bark, etc., 
of the stem, is furnished with food — until the little hairs 
can begin their work in the spring — that had been stored 
up in the cambium layer on the stem, limbs, and roots dur- 
ing the late growth of the previous year, substantially the 
same as food had been provided in the seed for the young 
to subsist on until the leaves are developed and all the func- 
tions of tree-life have become active. In order to protect 
themselves from injury the roots, as well as stem and 
branches, put on a coat of bark. 

The Sap. The circulation of the sap of a tree — the water 
with mineral food in solution gathered from the ground by 
the little rootlets and carried upward and outward to the 
extremity of the branches — is more wonderful, more com- 
plicated, and less understood than the circulation of the 
blood in animals. In animal life the muscular heart liter- 
ally pumps the blood through the arteries, at the same time 
drawing it from the veins. In animals there are separate 
channels for the circulation of the blood, one for the incoming 
to the heart and the other for the outgoing ; but it is not 
known, though it is probable, that some certain ones of the 
pores or ducts in the wood of trees serve as passageways for 
the sap and mineral food to the leaves and others for its 
return to appropriate places after digestion. It is done in 
some way, but we do not know just how ; possibly the di- 
gested food is carried back through pores in the live bark. 
Neither is there anything akin to a pump to be discovered 
in a tree or other plant life. The roots take in water, and 
by some unknown process, it climbs upward to the tops of 
the tallest trees, apparently as easily as it does in a diminu- 
tive plant. Redwood trees are frequently found three hun- 
dred feet in height. A column of water that high will pro- 
duce a pressure at the base of nearly one hundred and fifty 
pounds to the square inch. Evidently there are resting- 
places along the way, or something that shuts off the pres- 



68 IMPORTANT TIMBER TREES 

sure, or the cellular tissues of the wood would be ruptured. 
Just how this ascent of sap to such great heights as we 
know it attains is brought about we do not yet understand. 
There are various explanations, but each one of them has a 
weak link in its chain.^ Notwithstanding that we can see no 
active life in a tree in winter-time, yet it is certain that the 
sap ascends then, for if from any cause, such as dry or deeply 
frozen ground, moisture cannot be obtained by the roots 
for a long time, the tree will frequently be killed, because 
evaporation goes on through the pores in the bark and, in 
the case of evergreens, through the stomata or breathing- 
pores in their leaves. 

Stems and Leaves. Having now seen the functions and 
the growth of the roots, attention will be given to the stem 
and leaves to see what part they play in the economy of 
tree-life. The ascent of the sap to the leaves, carrying with 
it the mineral food, has already been noted, and a descrip- 
tion of the leaves and the functions they perform will be 
necessary to comprehend fully the growth of the tree, and 
especially the character of the stem from which lumber 
must be cut. The leaves of all trees have a framework of 
fibrous material called veins. The largest of them are pro- 
minent and plainly visible to the unaided eye. In broadleaf 
trees they are quite so. Close inspection will show that in 
some leaves there is a fine network of them. This network 
is technically called the leaf's venation. These veins are in- 
closed between two films known as the epidermis or leaf's 
skin. There are small holes in the skin of the leaves, and 
in broadleaf trees they are much more numerous on the 
under than on the upper side, but in some of the conifers 
there are about as many on one side as the other. They are 

^ " The principal cause of the ■upward movement of water is unknown. 
The most diverjifent views are held, not one of which has proved capable of 
satisfactory demonstration. ... It is hardly possible to deny the existence 
of root pressure, capillarity, and the lifting' power of evaporation and osmotic 
pressure. The relative importance of these, the manner in which they work, 
and the existence of other factors are points that it is impossible to settle at 
present." — Plant Physiology and Ecology, by Frederick Edward Clements, 
Ph.D., page 56. 



LIFE-HISTORY OF A TREE 69 

not visible to the naked eye, as they range in number from 
800 to 150,000 to the square inch, varying with species. 
The name stomata has been given them, and, as will be 
seen, these little holes play an important part in producing 
trees that will yield good lumber. Through them is admitted 
air where it comes in contact, in the chlorophyl, with the 
sap sent up by the roots and distributed throughout the 
leaf by the numerous veins. In some way, through the ac- 
tion of the chlorophyl, the carbonic acid gas which is min- 
gled with the other gases of the atmosphere and named car- 
bon-dioxide, combines with the mineral substance brought 
up in the sap, and these inorganic substances are changed into 
organic ones. They are, practically, digested and converted 
into available food, which neither was before the combina- 
tion took place. Just how this is done is not known, nor as 
stated, is it fully understood in what manner, or through 
what channels this prepared food is sent back from the 
leaves through or along the stem and all the branches and 
roots, leaving in their proper places in its passage such 
particular food as goes to make wood, bark, leaves, buds, 
flowers, and fruit. 

The Stomata as Breathing-Pores. In addition to ad- 
mitting the air to the chlorophyl lying between the two 
surfaces of the leaves, the stomata serve to let the excess 
of water, which was necessary to carry the mineral food 
from the roots to the leaves, evaporate and escape. This is 
called respiration, and the amount of water some trees give 
off when growing vigorously is astonishing. They also serve 
to let the oxygen, which has been rejected in the process of 
preparing the food, escape, thus literally serving as breath- 
ing-organs or mouths. The main difference between tree 
and animal breathing is that the tree exhales the oxygen 
and retains the carbon, while the animal rejects the carbon 
and retains the oxygen. If the tree could not throw off the 
oxygen, it would be practically smothered and would die, 
while the same end would come to the animal if it could 
not get rid of the carbon. 



70 IMPORTANT TIMBER TREES 

The Stomata must have Light. "We have already seen 
that the stomata, the little pores in the skin of the leaf, 
literally serve as mouths to take in air — a portion of 
which is consumed as food — and reject what is not suit- 
able, and that they also permit the escape of the surplus 
sap that comes to the leaves from the roots. But all this is 
neither so wonderful nor so important as the further fact 
that they must have light in which to do their work. They 
close in the absence of light and open only as light is given 
them. At first thought this feature will appear of little 
moment, but, when fully understood, it will be seen that it 
has a controlling influence in the production of merchant- 
able lumber. When trees are grown in the open, ample 
light comes to all their branches, or, at least, to their ex- 
tremities ; but when crowded and the leaves on their limbs 
are deprived of light, those so deprived are literally starved 
to death, for the stomata are closed and no carbon can 
mingle with the mineral ingredients to form food, nor can 
the poisonous oxygen be exhaled. The result is that the 
limbs that are deprived of light are not only starved but 
actually smothered ; and consequently die, decay, and drop 
off, leaving a smooth stem free from limbs and knots, from 
which first-class lumber can be cut. 

A tree grown in the open, where neither roots nor 
branches are crowded in any way, will naturally throw out 
limbs soon after emerging from the ground, and these will 
grow until deprived of light by limbs springing out above 
and reaching bej^ond them. A struggle for light is then 
begun and each limb naturally seeks to obtain it and con- 
sequently lengthens; but the small branches, which in the 
early life of the limb had light, are more or less deprived 
of it and die, with the result that the foliage of the tree is 
mainly on the outer ends of the limbs, which are frequently 
long and large. Such trees yield but little lumber, for the 
wood is largely in the limbs instead of in the body of the 
tree, and what it does yield is of little value, for it is filled 
with larsce knots. 



LIFE-HISTORY OF A TREE 71 

If light cannot be obtained for the lower limbs, the stems 
climb upward to secure it and tall trees free of limbs near 
the ground are the result. As there is a continual struggle 
for light and food, it is the province of forestry so to reg- 
ulate conditions that the best results will be obtained with- 
out unnecessary expenditure of effort or exhaustion of 
vitality of the tree, and at the same time to encourage the 
struggle sufficiently to secure the desired end. In other 
words, to so arrange for light, mineral food, and moisture 
that the surviving trees will not be compelled to wage a 
greater warfare in suppressing weaker ones than is abso- 
lutely necessary to produce the requisite character of lum- 
ber. This can be done by proper planting and thinning. 

Growth of 'Wood and Bark. As the substance required 
for wood goes back from the leaves there goes with it that 
which makes the bark, and while a layer of wood is de- 
posited on the outside of the stem, branches, and roots 
each year, — we are considering only those trees which thus 
make their growth, the exogens, for they are the only real 
timber trees, — there is likewise a thin layer of bark de- 
posited, which, however, is separated from the wood by what 
is botanically known as the Cambium Layer, a viscid secre- 
tion that intervenes between the last formed laj^ers of wood 
and bark. This layer not only separates the wood and bark, 
but at the end of the season's growth serves as a store- 
house for food on which the buds and roots draw in the 
beginning of the next year's growth, or until the leaves and 
roots are developed enough to themselves obtain food from 
the atmosphere and soil. The wood deposited is known, 
when mature, as the Annual Rings, These are very dis- 
tinct in some species, but quite obscure in others, and in 
some tropical species not discernible in either wood or bark. 
In most of our timber trees the wood first deposited is por- 
ous — filled with ducts and cells for the flow of sap. These 
are conspicuous in some species, as in Ash, Oak, Chest- 
nut, Elm, and some others. This cellular, first-deposited 
accretion is denominated the Spring Wood. As the sea- 



72 IMPORTANT TIMBER TREES 

son advances the number of cells lessen and the wood becomes 
much more compact and in most species harder, and this 
is called the Summer Wood. In some species there is such 
a distinction in color, porosity, and density between the 
spring and summer wood that the annual rings can be dis- 
tinguished without difficulty, and these features more or 
less affect the character of the wood. As a rule the annual 
rings indicate the age of the tree, but not always. If a 
drouth occurs in midsummer, growth will be arrested, and 
apparently a normal ring will be formed ; but if wet and 
warm weather then succeeds, growth will be resumed, and 
another but thinner ring will be laid on quite similar to the 
first. This, however, does not frequently occur, and the 
number of rings is a fair guide to the age of the tree. 

Heartwood and Sapwood. While carrying the min- 
eral ingredients of the tree's food to the leaves the sap is 
restricted in its passage, possibly in part to the live portion 
of the bark, but mainly to a limited number of the young- 
est annual layers of wood. These vary in number with the 
species of trees, and also with the conditions environing 
each individual tree of any given species, but as a rule 
they are quite uniform in each species. That portion of the 
tree through which the sap passes is called the Sapwood. 
After serving for a time for the purposes named, a change 
takes place in the innermost ring of the sapwood and the 
sap no longer flows through it, and it then becomes what is 
known as Heartwood. After this change occurs, that por- 
tion of the tree ceases to perform any life functions. For 
nearly all purposes it is dead, and the only service it there- 
after renders is to support the growing portion of the tree 
and prevent its destruction by winds. All the heartwood, 
as it frequently does, may decay and the tree remain alive 
and be nothing but a shell of sapwood. In most species 
the color of the heartwood is darker than that of the sap- 
wood, but not in all, for in some the reverse is the case, 
and in others there is very little or no difference. 

For nearly all purposes heartwood is preferred to sap- 



Section of a White Pine Board sixteen feet lonR, without wane or sap, 
nearly free from knots. Annual rinjis at stump showed tree to have 
been seventy-live years old. Tioga Oouuty, Pennsylvania. 




Section of a joist two and a lialf inches thick and fourteen inches wide, 
cut from Uld-t"ield I'ine, showing marked dilference between spring and 
Buininer wood. Southern Virginia. 




Section of Red Oak, four by four inches, 
showinginedullary ray sand annual rings. 



Section of Carolina Poplar si.\ years old. 
Annual rings indicated hy ligures; inter- 
mediate rings i-aused liy alternate wet 
and dry weather. Note liow irregularly 
heartwood is shaped. Heynoldsville, Jef- 
ferson County, Pennsylvania. 




Section of White Ash sixty-eight years old : roots on side 
of least growth were deprived of air and moisture l)y 
watertight l)rick pavement. State Capitol ('.rounds, Har- 
risburg, I'ennsylvania. — t'ow77esj^ of Pennsylvania De- 
partment of Forestry- 



LIFE-HISTORY OF A TREE 73 

wood. The former is more durable when exposed, is stronger, 
shrinks less in drying, and is heavier and more compact, 
the latter feature arising, no doubt, from the pores and 
ducts being filled with gums or other solid matter. There 
appears to be some irregularity in the change from sapwood 
to heartwood, but just why is not known. Practically all 
species are subject to it. Usually as a new ring of sapwood 
is laid on there is an inner one changed to heartwood ; but 
this does not invariably occur, as some trees of the same 
species may and do have more sapwood than others, and 
more towards the top than at the butt, or the reverse, and 
even more on one side than on the other. With some spe- 
cies of trees this change to heartwood does not occur until 
the tree reaches thirty or even seventy-five years of age, 
while in others there are seldom more than six or seven 
annual rings of that kind of wood. They generally lessen 
in number proportionally in all species as the tree reaches 
maturity and old age. The whole matter appears to be in- 
volved in more or less mystery. It appears to be an effort 
of Nature to discard that for which there is no further use, 
just as she discards the dead outer scales of bark. 

Pith and Medullary Rays. Another interesting feature 
in tree-growth is the pith in the centre of the stem and all 
the limbs, and the thin sheets or rays radiating therefrom. 
The pith is a small, porous, and somewhat spongy cylinder 
of cellular tissue, and what purpose it serves in the economy 
of the tree's life is not fully known, if at all. The glassy 
sheets radiating from the pith are technically known as the 
Medullary Rays. They are harder than the pith and some- 
times harder than the surrounding wood. They can be 
found in all of our timber trees, but are more conspicu- 
ous in some than in others, and where plainly visible are 
deemed to add beauty to the wood when it is used for inter- 
ior finish and furniture. They do not run uninterruptedly 
the entire length of the tree, but are broken up into short, 
irregular patches and are seldom more than six or seven 
inches long. The major portion of them radiate from and 



74 IMPORTANT TIMBER TREES 

are connected with the pith, although broken more or less 
as they recede therefrom. The microscope shows, however, 
that all are not connected with the pith. They show inde- 
pendently in the bark of some species. The common names 
given them are "mirrors" and "silver sheens." It is well 
known that most woods will split more evenly and readily 
on lines radiating from the centre than tangentially. This 
is undoubtedly brought about by the medullary rays. It is 
also known that in seasoning, woods begin to check in these 
rays. 

The Bark. It has already been stated that when the di- 
gested food travels back from the leaves and puts on a layer 
of wood on the stem, branches, and roots, it also gives a 
layer of suitable material to the inside of the bark on both 
stem and root development. This is necessary because the 
size of all parts is constantly increasing and more expanse 
of bark is required each year to cover the whole. As the 
tree grows the distance around it increases, and as the bark 
is only slightly elastic it necessarily cracks, and new bark 
must be grown or the tender wood will be exposed and the 
cambium layer so interfered with that a new layer of wood 
cannot be grown through its good offices. As the inner 
rings of the sapwood practically die as they change to heart- 
wood and perform no further functions in the life of the 
tree than that of protection, so a similar change takes place 
in the bark, except that the outer layer dies and a new inner 
one is formed, the latter serving the purpose for which it is 
designed, which is that of aiding in the distribution of food 
and protecting the parts it covers from injury. It must be 
admitted that some of the functions of the bark are not yet 
fully understood, but enough is known to determine pretty 
well what takes place. As already stated, there is an an- 
nual addition to the inside of the bark, and for a time in the 
life of a young tree there is no death of any bark layers ; 
but as the stem, branches, and roots grow the bark fails 
to expand with the growth, and the outer or oldest layer 
cracks, and when that occurs the death of such layer fol- 



LIFE-HISTORY OF A TREE 75 

lows, but a new one is taken on at the same time. Some- 
times the dead layer falls off annually, as with the Syca- 
more and Paper Birch, but generally it changes into a corky 
condition and adheres as the tree expands. As this occurs 
the dead parts arrange themselves in more or less vertical 
valleys and ridges, although in some trees the dead bark 
cracks irregularly and in patches, in which case it generally 
falls off in scales in a few years after its death ; hence some 
trees show a thinner bark than others. The inner layers 
are called the live and the outer ones the dead bark. There 
is quite a plain line of demarcation between them. 

In some species the annual layers are much thicker than 
in others and are distinctly shown in the dead bark when 
cut radially from the heart of the tree. The bark of some 
trees contains chemical properties, such as tannic acid — 
an astringent much used in tanning leather — and other use- 
ful ingredients, and on that account may have a commercial 
value. This is especially true of the Eastern and Western 
Hemlock and some of the Oaks, notably the Chestnut Oak. 
While the live bark is the most heavily charged with tannin 
it does not rapidly disappear from the dead bark. Old Hem- 
lock bark retains its tannin for a longf time. 

An interesting experiment which discloses something of 
the process in the deposition of the material constituting 
the bark may be made by carefully removing some of the 
bark of a tree at the time of the tree's most rapid growth in 
early summer, when the bark most readily separates from 
the cambium layer, then active in distributing both wood 
and bark materials, which are then soft and easily placed. 
If the exposed surface of the cambium is carefully shaded, 
or the weather is moist and cloudy for a few days, a coat 
of bark will be formed over the entire surface that has been 
exposed, — providing the cambium has not been bruised 
or broken, — and the wood and bark growth will go on 
under the new bark the same as if the old had not been re- 
moved. A young and thrifty tree can, at the time of its 
most rapid growth, be completely deprived of its bark for 



76 IMPORTANT TIMBER TREES 

several feet in height and recover, if the cambium is care- 
fully protected as indicated. In shading the wound care 
must be taken to keep the enveloping material from com- 
ing in contact with the cambium, for wherever it touches 
the bark will not form. 

A great mistake is made by applying to the wound paint, 
oil, dirt, or other substance, when some of the bax'k of a 
tree, at the time of the most rapid growth in early sum- 
mer, has been removed by accident. If the lacerated spot 
is shaded by wrapping colored paper or cloth around it, 
shutting out the sunlight and wind, the wound will almost 
invariably be coated with new bark, and little practical in- 
jury be done to the tree. If the wound is made late in the 
summer there will be no bark formed and then the wound 
would best be painted to exclude every species of fungi. 

The peculiar characteristics of the exterior bark of trees 
give a fairly good guide in determining the species. Thus 
no Oak need be mistaken for a Pine, nor a White Pine for 
a Yellow Pine ; but in some cases there is so close a re- 
semblance that the cursory observer may be mistaken. At 
an advanced age the bark of a Hemlock somewhat resem- 
bles that of a White Pine of the same size, and the bark of 
a Red Oak and a Black Oak are very similar. An expert 
may not be mistaken in any case, but all cannot be ex- 
perts, and such as are not should learn to know the trees 
the same as they do a person, not by any minor detail or 
particular feature alone, but by their general make-up, 
their forms, general features, etc. 

While we have a comprehension of nearly all of the fea- 
tures of tree-life and can understand how certain things 
are brought about, there is one which has much to do with 
the value of the lumber that a tree may produce that is 
wholly inexplicable. This particular characteristic is the 
irregularity of the direction of the grain or fibre compos- 
ing the substance of the wood, as noted on page 80, but 
there considered only as it relates to commercial or indus- 
trial features. There are two kinds of irregular jrraiu or 



LIFE-HISTORY OF A TKEE 77 

fibre quite distinct from each other. As noted, one is where 
they are irregularly interlaced and are not parallel with 
each other, and the other is where the grain is practically 
parallel with itself, but winds spirally around the axis of 
the tree. There is no dictionary word for the former, but 
woodworkers say it is " eaty," meaning that the fibres work 
or eat their way into the wood as a worm eats its way into 
fruit. The interlacing of the fibres is invariably found in 
some species, as in the Sycamore and Tupelo. In others it 
appears occasionally. It adds to the beauty of such as are 
used for interior finish and furniture, as those portions of 
the surface which show the ends of the fibres are, when 
finished, darker in color than those showing the sides, the 
color varying with the angle in which the fibres are pre- 
sented. This irregularity does not materially lessen the 
strength of the wood, and for some purposes cannot be 
looked upon as a defect, while for others it enhances its 
value, bnt makes it difficult to work. 

The other irregularity is designated as " winding," that 
is, the fibres or grain " wind " around the stem or trunk ; 
and when the lumber is cut parallel with the tree's axis 
from such a tree, the grain necessarily runs across the 
board or stick, which makes it not only hard to work but 
weakens it, and the value of the wood for some purposes is 
seriously affected, especially if the wind is great. A board 
cut from such a tree may be so cross-grained as to be easily 
broken, — practically be split diagonally across, — and a 
stick used for vertical support is weaker because of the 
tendency of the fibres to part and the stick to collapse. 
Such timber is rejected by the competent engineer where 
great compressile strength is required. The tendency of 
such lumber to warp in seasoning is noted elsewhere. Nei- 
ther of these irregularities is uniform in any species. In- 
dividuals of the same species are differently affected. Some 
trees of some species are practically free — but few en- 
tirely so — and others are greatly affected. No one claims 
that there is any law manifest in the case of irregular and 



78 IMPORTANT TIMBER TREES 

tortuous interlacing of fibres, but it is erroneously claimed 
by some that there is a uniform law shown in spiral wind- 
ing, and that the wind is always in the direction of the 
sun's course in the heavens, that is, from east to west on 
the south side of the tree and consequently in the opposite 
direction on the other side. An examination of a large 
number of peeled Hemlock logs, cut in localities far apart, 
during twoscore years of lumbering experience, — this tree 
being more given to that kind of irregularity than almost 
any other of our timber trees, — shows that about ten per 
cent was without any wind, approximately twenty per cent 
with the sun and seventy per cent against it. No law ap- 
pears, in the case of trees, to govern in either irregularity, 
although, as a rule, climbing plants twine against the sun ; 
nor is it known that any treatment of a growing tree can 
in any way modify or change the wind. It would be well 
for the Government to undertake the task of finding out 
whether winding is hereditary, for if growing trees from 
seed of only such as are straight-grained will produce 
others of like condition, much good would come from it. 



XII 

CLASSIFICATION AND CHARACTER OF WOOD 

That it may be understood why certain peculiar fea- 
tures and characteristics of the wood of each of the several 
species of trees described in succeeding chapters are men- 
tioned in detail, it is deemed advisable to define, in a gen- 
eral manner, the meaning of the terms used, and also to 
indicate the qualities or features which such terms cover 
or represent; for upon these qualities and features depend 
the tree's value. It must be plain to all that a knowledge 
of the particular features of the wood of each species of 
trees, and its adaptation to the uses to which the wood is 
or can be put, is essential in determining what kinds to 
grow ; and such knowledge must be had before an intelli- 
gent course can be decided upon. 

Softwood — Hardwood. Generally speaking, the tim- 
ber trees of our country are classed as " Softwood " and 
" Hardwood," and however much or little this division may 
vary from fact the distinction is universally made in the 
lumber trade. Yet, when we consider the trees placed in 
each class by the lumberman, we can see that the terms 
are not in accordance with fact. Some are classed as hard- 
woods when the wood is actually softer than that of some 
which are classed as softwoods. To speak of the softwoods 
of the lumberman as " conifers " would be correct in fact, 
for that they all are. It would not be correct to speak of 
the lumberman's softwoods as " evergreens," for Cypress, 
Larches, and Tamaracks are all classed among softwoods 
and are all conifers, and they are deciduous, — they shed 
their leaves in autumn, — while the Holly and Live Oak 
are evergreens, but are strictly hardwoods, and are so 
classed. 



80 IMPORTANT TIMBER TREES 

Fortunately, however, what constitutes a softwood tree 
has been defined by a recent decision of the courts which 
holds that " any tree that has a needle-like leaf is a soft- 
wood " ; and under this distinction it will be fair to assume 
that all others are hardwoods. It is not claimed that this 
decision is based upon actual character of the wood, but 
upon a prevailing classification, by lumbermen, which is of 
so long standing that it amounts to a universal custom of 
which the law will take cognizance. It should be under- 
stood, however, that when the author speaks of the wood 
of any given tree as " soft " or " hard," he refers to the 
actual properties and not to the classification designated by 
the judicial decision ; as, for instance, he calls the wood of 
Sugar Maple hard and that of Basswood soft, while both 
belong to the class of legal hardwoods. So, too, the- wood 
of the Longleaf Pine is spoken of as hard, — that is, hard 
for a pine, — while it is legally placed with the softwoods, 
and this rule pertains to all species of trees considered. 

Fine-grained — Close-grained — Coarse-grained — 
Cross-grained — Straight-grained. All these terms are 
more or less used by lumbermen, woodworkers, and authors 
denoting certain characteristics of wood. In order to under- 
stand their meaning, it will be well first to determine what 
constitutes the " grain." Unfortunately the dictionaries are 
not very explicit in definition nor are they in complete ac- 
cord with woodworkers and lumbermen respecting its mean- 
ing when applied to wood. The nearest approach to an 
agreement is the definition of "grain" given in the Century 
Dictionary^ where it is defined as " fibrous texture or con- 
stitution, especially of wood ; the substance of wood as modi- 
fied by the quality, arrangement, or direction of its fibres : 
as, boxwood has a very compact grain ; wood of a gnarled 
grain ; to plane wood with, against, or across the grain." The 
same authority defines fibre as "the narrow elongated cells 
which characterize the woody and bast tissues of plants, 
giving them strength, toughness, and elasticity." While 
giving due importance to the direction and arrangement 



CLASSIFICATION AND CHARACTER OF WOOD 81 

of the fibres the woodworker and lumberman take into con- 
sideration the size and number of cells or veins and their 
arrangement, and to some extent the difference in density 
and compactness between spring and summer growth. 

Fine-grained — Close-grained. These are practically 
synonymous terms and are applied by the lumberman and 
woodworker to wood with small, inconspicuous, and evenly 
distributed pores or veins. In some woods these are so 
small as to be barely visible, if at all, to the unaided eye, 
and the fibres are compact and close. Such wood is not 
necessarily hard. Cedar is fine-grained but soft ; boxwood 
is fine-grained but hard. Schlich, in his Manual (volume v, 
page 83), defines fine-grained wood as " wood that can be 
easily worked, whether or not it appears so to the eye. It 
is not equivalent to narrow-zoned — annual rings — nor to 
anatomical simple structures." This takes into considera- 
tion the fineness and even distribution of fibres and veins. 
Such wood may be hard yet easily worked because of its 
uniform density. 

Coarse-grained. With the woodworker this term is 
practically the opposite of fine-grained. It applies where 
the ducts or veins are numerous, coarse, and unevenly dis- 
tributed. In some woods the spring growth shows numer- 
ous large veins, while the summer wood has only small and 
inconspicuous ones — notably the Oaks, Ashes, Chestnut, 
Elms, and some others. Such woods may be either hard or 
soft, but they may be, and generally are, hard to work be- 
cause of their unevenness in density. 

Cross-grained. Strictly speaking, this term applies to 
wood where the fibres are not parallel to the axis of the 
tree from which it is cut, as explained on page 77. It is 
also given to wood where the fibres are not parallel to each 
other but are tortuous and interlaced. 

Straight-grained. This applies to wood where the fibres 
are parallel to the axis of the stem of the tree. Such wood 
is stronger than if cross-grained and is hence more valu- 
able. As a rule it can be easily split and more readily 



82 IMPORTANT TIMBER TREES 

dressed to a fine, smooth surface, although not esteemed as 
beautiful when finished without paint. 

Strength of Fibre. Irrespective of the direction or den- 
sity of the grain or fibre of wood there is a peculiar fea- 
ture in some wood which adds much to the value of trees 
possessing it. This is termed its Strength of Fibre, and is 
that characteristic or quality which fits the wood for the 
manufacture of what is commercially termed " pulp," from 
which paper, celluloid, cardboard, and many other useful 
articles are made. Some species of trees are conspicuously 
adapted for this and others are not. The poplars stand at 
the head of the list for pulp for paper, and next after them 
come the Spruces, Firs, Balsams, Hemlocks, Pines, and some 
of the broadleaf trees, as Basswood, Yellow Poplar, and 
some others. 

Seasoning — Drying — Checking — Warping. These 
features are so intimately connected with each other that 
they need not be separately discussed. The first two terms 
are practically synonymous and will be so used. Webster's 
definition of seasoning is, " To prepare by drying or harden- 
ing, or removal of natural juices ; as, to season timber." It is 
a well-known fact that when wood is cut from a live tree it 
is heavier than when seasoned — that is, heavier than when 
the moisture in the pores or veins has been dried out. The 
results which arise from seasoning have much to do with the 
value of the wood and hence become an important economic 
feature. Unless used where continually saturated with water, 
all wood is more serviceable if seasoned, and the rapidity 
with which that can be accomplished, and the freedom from 
injury in bringing that about, play an important part when 
we determine what trees to plant. 

As has been explained (page 6Q}, the pores or veins 
carry the sap from the roots to the leaves, and hence have 
more or less moisture in them all of the time. Before sea- 
soning there is always more moisture in the sapwood than 
in the heartwood, and therefore wood from trees with a large 
amount of the former is more difficult to season than the 



CLASSIFICATION AND CHARACTER OF WOOD 83 

latter, and consequently the wood shrinks more in drying. 
The pores in the heartwood are more or less filled with gum, 
tannin, and other substances, yet are never without moist- 
ure until thoroughly seasoned. When the moisture is evap- 
orated the wood necessarily shrinks, the fibres become more 
compact, it becomes stronger, — not necessarily tougher, 
but, on the other hand, more brittle, — harder, and more 
serviceable. Evaporation of the moisture proceeds most 
rapidly from the ends of the pores or veins when exposed 
— although in but few woods are they continuous ; hence a 
board or stick will dry more quickly at the ends, and, 
shrinking faster there than elsewhere, cracks are liable to 
occur. Consequently, to prevent unequal shrinking, and 
the resultant checking, evaporation should go on evenly 
over the entire surface. To avoid checking through the un- 
equal evaporation of the moisture they contain, logs of 
valuable species, such as Black Walnut, Ash, Cherry, etc., 
are frequently painted at the ends as soon as cut. 

The moisture in the fibres and pores of the wood is not 
compelled to pass out through the ends of the wood alone, 
as it can and does escape elsewhere. Unfortunately the 
escape of moisture is not uniform in any species of wood, 
but may be greater in some parts than in others ; and this 
gives rise to irregular shrinking, which results in warping 
and twisting of the stick or board, — which is a very serious 
defect 'even if checking is avoided. It is greater in some 
species of wood than in others. This irregular drying, and 
consequent irregular shrinking and checking, are largely 
brought about — but not entirely so — by the fibres not 
running parallel with each other. As has been shown, the 
fibres of some species of tree are much distorted and rim in 
various directions, twisting and interlacing, and when lumber 
is sawed from them the open ends of the pores are presented 
and evaporation takes place more rapidly there. Shrinkage 
endwise will occur in cross-grained wood practically in the 
ratio of the departure of the fibres from parallelism with 
the axis of the stick or board. 



84 IMPORTANT TIMBER TREES 

Checking and warping of some woods when seasoning 
baffled manufacturers for a long time, and, until methods 
were discovered whereby it was overcome, many woods were 
esteemed of little value. But much has been gained in that 
direction, and dry-kilns now obviate such difficulties to a 
great extent. They suppress even the exudation of gums 
and pitch from some woods so that they can be painted or 
otherwise finished without danger of disfigurement from 
that source. Experience shows that all wood can imbibe 
moisture after being seasoned, — some more than others, 
— whether it comes as a direct application of water or from 
a humid atmosphere. Whenever that occurs the wood im- 
mediately swells and, in common parlance, " will not stay 
put." 

It is a singular fact, but one well known to woodworkers, 
that no matter how long or how thoroughly a piece of wood 
may have been seasoned, and notwithstanding it may practi- 
cally have neither shrunk nor swelled during its use, yet to 
dress off the surface with a plane or otherwise will cause 
the piece to shrink again. Whether there is still moisture 
in the wood which can escape after the thoroughly dried 
surface is removed may be a question, but probably that is 
the case. 

Decay. It is well known that some woods decay more 
rapidly than others. As here used, decay does not include 
wearing away of a surface when exposed to the action of 
the winds, water, or frost, but a breaking-down of the cellu- 
lar structure from and through diseases brought into it by 
some of the various species of fungi. Wood of some spe- 
cies of trees resists these attacks better than others, and 
this power of resistance in a large measure establishes its 
value for exposed situations. Were a fence post, telegraph 
pole, or railroad tie cut from a Paper Birch capable of re- 
sisting decay equal to that of a Locust or Catalpa, the value 
of the Birch would be far above what it is. Thus a know- 
ledge of the resistance to decay aids in determining what to 
plant. 



CLASSIFICATION AND CHARACTER OF WOOD 85 

Strength. The power to resist breaking or crushing is 
another very desirable feature in wood. For many purposes 
this determines its value. White Qak and Hickory are well 
known for their strength and endurance when subjected to 
great strain and heavy burdens. Weight for weight they 
are nearly as strong as cast iron in resisting transverse 
strains. This eminently fits them for some purposes, for 
which other species would be worthless. It must be remem- 
bered that all the wood of a tree of any given species is not 
of equal strength. Some Oaks may have no greater strength, 
for equal dimensions, than White Pine or Yellow Poplar ; 
but this arises from conditions surrounding the tree in its 
growth. The wood of some parts of a tree may be stronger 
than that of other portions. Soil, location, age, suppression 
by other trees, and subsequent relief from that, may greatly 
modify the character of the wood produced. Therefore, the 
best that can be done in describing the qualities of any 
wood is to speak of it in its average condition, as, for in- 
stance, to say of an Oak or a Hickory that it is tough, 
strong, hard, etc., or of some other species that they are 
weak, soft, and brittle. 

Color — Texture. The color, texture, and general appear- 
ance of wood when used for furniture, interior finish, or in 
other protected places where it is to be seen, are important 
features and have much to do with its value. Though some- 
what harder and more durable than Yellow Poplar, Black 
Walnut would-be of little more value than the Poplar were 
the beauty of its color and texture covered with a coat 
of paint. Some woods have a rich, satiny, and transparent 
surface when finished without stain or paint, and modern 
taste has come to appreciate these qualities. Some will take 
stain well, by which they may be made to resemble closely 
woods of superior character, and some will take paint or 
glue better than others, all of which are important features. 

Medullary Rays. The wood of all trees has medullary 
rays as elsewhere described. In many species they are small 
and inconspicuous, but the possession of them by a few 



86 IMPORTANT TIMBER TREES 

adds mucli to their importance, notably all the Oaks, the 
Sycamore, and several others in a lesser degree. Woods in 
which these are prominei^t and conspicuous are generally 
" quarter sawed " in manufacture, that is, sawed radially — 
from centre to circumference — so as to display this feature. 
When sawed tangentially — at right angles with a line 
drawn from centre to periphery — it is called " flat," 
"plain," or "bastard" sawed. The latter method displays 
the prominent features arising from the difference in color 
and density between spring and summer growth. This dis- 
tinction is further emphasized in finishing with colored 
" filling," which darkens the pores of the spring wood and 
makes them more conspicuous. 

All of the features here noted, and some of less import- 
ance, add to or detract from, as the case may be, the value 
of woods, and should be considered when determining what 
to plant. Although some of the nut-bearing trees have ad- 
ditional value on account of the fruit they bear, and others 
in the resin, gum, or tannin in the bark or wood, or other 
like properties, such features do not have any very import- 
ant bearing in deciding what trees to grow for timber, but 
they may aid somewhat in determining what to choose. The 
fact, however, should be recognized that trees grown in the 
forest where they must be crowded to produce good timber 
bear little fruit at best, and that not until late in life. 



XIII 

THE FOREST NURSERY 

Planting or sowing seeds where the trees are to grow 
to maturity is frequently advisable, and in some instances 
and with some species, may prove to be the most satisfac- 
tory method, but experience shows that growing certain 
kinds in a nursery and, when large enough, transplanting 
them into the forest is far more likely to be successful. The 
reason for this is that in the nursery the young trees are 
protected and cared for until they are large enough to con- 
tend successfully with the adverse surroundings which they 
are almost certain to encounter in early life from the pres- 
ence of brush, weeds, and grass that almost invariably exist 
on the ground where the forest is to stand. Only on limited 
areas can tree seeds be planted where the forest is to grow 
without the tiny and almost helpless seedlings encountering 
unfavorable conditions which will render them liable to be 
greatly retarded in growth or killed outright. We know 
full well that our farm and garden crops must be protected 
from weeds in early life, — and should be at all ages to 
be profitable, — and it is precisely the same with young 
trees. 

It may appear paradoxical but it is an established fact 
that many species of trees can be grown from seed in a 
nursery and properly treated there until three or four years 
old, — their sojourn in the nursery to depend largely upon 
the species, — and can then be set out in the forest, where they 
will, at the end of six or eight years, be larger, more vigor- 
ous, and better able to withstand encroachments upon their 
domain, whereby they are robbed of moisture, food, and 
light by worthless and greedy vegetable growth, than will 
be those of the same age from seed sown or planted in pre- 



88 IMPORTANT TIMBER TREES 

cisely like situations. But this is not true with all species. 
Some have what is designated a tap-root, — among these 
are a few of the conifei-s and many of the broadleaf species, 
— and the deprivation or severe mutilation of that feature 
is sometimes fatal, and in all cases retards the growth. Such 
would best be planted where they are to grow to maturity, 
although some of them can be transplanted without serious 
injury. In addition to being relieved from adverse sur- 
roundings a young tree grown in a nursery develops a fuller 
and better root system than when standing among worth- 
less hungry neighbors. This is especially true if it can be 
once transplanted in the nursery and given more space in 
which it can grow for one, two, or three years. To grow 
trees in a nursery until they are large enough to be trans- 
planted into the forest is no more difficult than it is to grow 
most garden vegetables. The length of time required is the 
most important difference. 

As the nursery is the basis upon which any considerable 
advancement and success in forestry in the future of this 
country must rest, — and the experience of European coun- 
tries shows that it is so there, — a full description of the 
methods which experienced nurserymen have found most 
advisable, together with suggestions for removal of the lit- 
tle trees from the nursery and planting them into the for- 
est, is surely justified, although it may require considerable 
space. The professional nurseryman may not find much 
in this relation that is new, but what he will see is based 
upon actual experience as exhibited in the largest and best 
forest nurseries ; and to it is added the careful and diligent 
personal observation and experience of the author. Rea- 
sons for doing this or that thing are given and the reader 
can judge for himself whether they are sound. While large 
areas are dealt with, an intelligent understanding will ob- 
serve that small ones are to be treated in substantially the 
same manner. 

In explanation of the terms used it should be stated that 
a " seed-bed " is that part of a nursery where the seeds are 



:-4te: ^ r 



I 






I 



■X 




NATURALLY GROWX WHITE PINE SEEDLINGS, TAKEN FROM 
ABANDONED FIELD 

The one at extreme left is one year old ; the others are two, four, and five years 
respectively. Note the lack of fibrous root development, especially next to stem. 




NURSERY-GROWN WHITE PINE SEEDLINGS AND TRANSPLANTS 

From right to left; one-year-old seedling; two-year-old seedling; three-year-old 
transplant, removed from seed-bed at two years; four- year-old transplant, removed 
from seed-bed at two years, seven inches high from top of root system to terminal 
bud. Note good root development, especially in the transplants. 



THE FOREST NURSERY 89 

sown ; that tlie little trees grown in the seed-beds are termed 
" seedlings " until removed, which event may occur when 
they are one, two, three, or four years old. The "transplant 
nursery " is the ground to which the seedlings are removed 
in order to develop their root system and make them able 
to achieve victory in their struggle when set out in the 
forest. After removal from the seed-bed to the transplant 
nursery the little trees are known as " transplants." Seed- 
lings and transplants are, for brevity, designated " plants." 

Location. The main requisite is a deep, fertile, and 
friable soil, with good drainage and free from stones. In 
these requirements they are in complete accord with the 
vegetable garden. The ground selected should not be ex- 
posed to the sweep of winds, whereby the moisture will be 
quickly evaporated, nor where the snow will be blown ofp. 
Protection from evaporation — evaporation is always in- 
creased by winds — and preserving the snow covering that 
Nature generally puts on the ground in winter are highly 
essential. The latter is more important than may at first 
appear. It is fully realized by farmers that a covering of 
snow on winter wheat or newly seeded meadow is a great 
protection against the roots being thrown out by the alter- 
nate freezing and thawing which occurs when the ground is 
bare in winter, and the same liability to be thrown out under 
similar conditions exists with little trees in the nursery. 
When Nature plants tree seeds she protects the infant 
plants in winter by the shade of larger trees or with a cov- 
ering of dead weeds, grass, or fallen leaves. 

A slight inclination of the surface is very desirable, for if 
it is perfectly level, and there should more water fall at any 
time than can be readily absorbed by the ground, the plants 
may be greatly injured or killed outright by being sub- 
merged. A slight descent facilitates underdraining, which 
will be necessary if not naturally provided for by a loose sub- 
soil free from water. If the subsoil is a compact clay, and 
practically impervious to water, underdraining should be re- 
sorted to, but such a location should be avoided if possible. 



90 IMPORTANT TIMBER TREES 

Preparation of the Ground. The selection of the site 
having been determined upon, the preparation of the ground 
naturally follows. If the plot chosen is fairly fertile it would 
best be ploughed or spaded late in the fall to a depth of ten 
or twelve inches — preferably the latter. This work should 
be delayed to as late a period as possible so as to expose to 
the frosts of winter all larvae or other pests that burrow in 
the soil. If the soil is not fertile a suitable coat of muck,i 
compost, or well-rotted barnyard manure should be applied 
and ploughed or spaded under. The latter must be well 
covered, for if not put below the surface a crop of weeds 
will very likely spring up the next summer and cause much 
trouble and expense in getting rid of them. If the condi- 
tion of the soil at the time of spading or ploughing will per- 
mit it the plot should at once be laid out into beds four and 
one half feet wide and as long as may be deemed advisable. 
Most of the beds must be covered with lath screens the first 
year, and a screen six feet long is one of convenient length 
for handling, and any multiple of that may be adopted for 
the length of the bed. If the ground is much descending 
the beds should be laid out closely approaching contour 
lines ; that is, they should be nearly level, but still descend- 
ing lengthwise enough to prevent water standing in the 
paths between them. The paths between the beds may be 
from one and one half to two or more feet wide — two feet 
being generally deemed ample. The depths of the paths 
must be regulated by the character of the soil. If loose or 
sandy they need not be over three inches deep, or four at 
farthest, but if the soil is close and compact they should be 
deeper. The soil from the paths can be thrown on the beds, 
and the entire surface should be made as rough as possible 
and left in that condition so that freezing can pulverize it, 
for that is essential. 

^ Muck obtained from a swamp or any wet location should have its natu- 
ral acidity corrected with lime before its use is attempted. After thoroughly 
ming-ling the lime and muck the mass should be allowed to remain in the 
open air for several months and be occasionally worked over. It can then be 
composted with barnyard manure and used to g'ood advantage in the nursery.J 



THE FOREST NURSERY 91 

As soon as the ground becomes dry enough in the spring 
the beds should be spaded or otherwise worked to a depth 
of a few inches, but not deep enough to bring to the sur- 
face any manure filled with weed seeds that may have been 
applied in the fall. All stones and sticks must be removed 
and any lumps of manure, sods, or compact soil should be 
thoroughly pulverized or raked off. A small-tined potato 
hook or a long-toothed garden rake can be used for this 
purpose. The surface of the bed must be finely pulverized 
and smoothed and the centre made an inch, or a trifle more, 
higher than the edges — just enough to carry off the sur- 
plus water that may fall in time of excessive rains. 

For proof of the advisability of ploughing or spading in 
the late fall and not in the spring, it may be stated that 
many farmers follow fall ploughing for sowing oats, bar- 
ley, and spring wheat, and with good results, only harrow- 
ing or lightly cultivating the surface before sowing. Of 
course this system applies only to those portions of the 
country where the frost goes clown from six to ten or more 
inches in depth. The object is to take advantage of the 
friable condition of the soil which is brought about by 
freezing, and the additional advantage of early sowing. 
This latter is of more importance than it at first may ap- 
pear. In early spring the soil is invariably moist at the 
bottom, — and yet it may be dry enough on the very sur- 
face to sow seeds in, — and if not ploughed or spaded will 
retain that moisture for some time, thus aiding in early 
germination. Instances can be given where early sowing 
of tree seeds was eminently successful, while those sown ten 
days later in an adjacent bed resulted in almost complete 
failure. There is no doubt but that fall planting of the 
seeds of many of our timber trees would be best were the 
seeds not liable to be destroyed by birds, mice, or squirrels. 
It is the natural method. Nature sows nearly all the seeds 
which she brings forth as soon as they are ripe. Spring 
ploughing or spading must be resorted to if that work has 
not been done late in the fall or frost has not pulverized 



92 IMPORTANT TIMBER TREES 

the ground; but unless the ground lies undisturbed until 
it is well dried out to the depth that it is to be cultivated, 
wet lumps will be brought up and these will not pulverize 
readily, and when they dry out they will bake and leave 
the ground in a very unsatisfactory condition for seed-sow- 
ing. To wait until the ground is dry enough to spade or 
plough will, unless it is sandy, ordinarily so delay planting 
that success will be doubtful. 

If the ground selected is full of weed seeds it will gen- 
erally be found profitable, in the end, to delay planting for 
a year in order to get rid, as much as possible, of the 
weeds that will spring up from them if not destroyed, for 
keeping down the weeds is among the most expensive items 
in nursery work. With such a condition of the soil the ground 
ought to be ploughed early in the spring and as soon as 
the weeds show should be gone over with a harrow, culti- 
vator, or heavy rake, this operation to be repeated as often 
as the weeds show green on the surface. This frequent 
cultivation will bring a large number of the weed seeds 
where they will germinate, and frequent cultivation will 
kill them. If the ground could be ploughed once or twice 
in the summer all the better. Weeds can be destroyed 
much cheaper in this way than by pulling them out by 
hand from among the little plants. If sod ground be 
chosen it, too, should be ploughed in early spring, fre- 
quently hai-rowed in summer, and about the first of Sep- 
tember cross-ploughed and, late in the fall, spaded and 
made into beds. If not fertile a coat of manure should be 
applied before spring ploughing. It may seem a waste of 
time and a loss of the use of the ground to let it appar- 
ently lie idle for a year, but it will pay in the end. 

Sowing the Seed. When the seed-beds are prepared 
the forest nurseryman must decide which one of two sys- 
tems he will adopt in sowing the seeds. In making the se- 
lection he must be governed by the condition of the soil in 
which the seeds are to be placed and the species of trees to 
be grown. These systems are known as Broadcast Sowing 



THE FOREST NURSERY 93 

and Drill Sowing (sowing in rows). Nearly all the con- 
iferous and some of the broadleaf seeds can be sown broad- 
cast, and all species can be sown in drills. The moist 
weed seeds lying in the ground will invariably germinate 
sooner than the dry tree seeds, and the weeds, being much 
more rapid growers than the trees, will, if present in large 
numbers, suppress the seedling trees unless the weeds are 
promptly removed on their appearance. Neither weeding 
with any implement nor cultivation of the surface can be 
engaged in if broadcast sowing is adopted, but drill sowing 
will permit this to be done between the rows with small 
hoes or hand weeders. It also permits cultivation, which 
at times is very important. 

Broadcast Sowing. The reasons which govern in 
adopting broadcast sowing are : Greater yield on the same 
area, doing away with the labor of weeding and cultivation, 
and a more vigorous growth of seedlings. The first two 
reasons named need not be questioned if the ground is free 
from weed seeds, and the last one appears to be based on 
fact, but it is difficult to show why it is so. It is probable, 
however, that the more complete shading of the ground 
afforded by the crowns of the seedlings, when standing 
close together, prevents evaporation and provides a condi- 
tion somewhat like that of the forest floor under older trees. 
Aside from the claim that a more vigorous growth of seed- 
lings results from bi-oadcast sowing, the fact that a greater 
yield from a given area can be secured by this system 
should receive favorable consideration ; and especially so if 
the ground is not seriously filled with weed seeds. If it is 
so filled the cost for labor in removing the weeds, and the 
consequent injury to the little seedlings by such removal 
— for they will doubtless stand so close that pulling up 
the weeds will destroy more or less of the seedlings — will 
more than coxinterbalance the increased yield and any real 
or fancied vigor of growth. If weeds are allowed to grow 
in a dense stand of seedlings they will not only rob the 
soil of its food and moisture, but overtop and suppress the 



94 IMPORTANT TIMBER TREES 

diminutive seedlings. Whether or not broadcast sowing in 
the seed-beds should be adopted must mainly depend upon 
the amount of weed seeds in the soil.^ 

When the seed-bed has been properly prepared the seed 
should, in some manner, be evenly scattered over it with- 
out delay. This is a somewhat difficult task and it must be 
done by hand, for no machine has yet been brought out 
that will broadcast seed evenly on so narrow a strip of 
ground without scattering more or less of it where it will 
be wasted. The seed would best be thoroughly mixed with 
several times its bulk of light-colored sand and then scat- 
tered as evenly as possible. Enough sand should be added 
to 2:0 over the bed at least twice. The color of the sand 
will indicate where the seed has fallen. Small seeds can, 
when mixed with sand, be quite evenly sown with a sieve 
with suitable meshes. 

As soon as sown the seeds should be pressed into the 
ground with a bat, hoe, or shovel, or a board can be laid 
on and a light blow given it. After the seeds have been 
pressed into the ground a coat of finely pulverized loose 
soil or, better, a mixture of well decayed leaf mould and 
sand, must be evenly sifted over the entire surface to a 
depth of from three sixteenths to one fourth of an inch, — 
this applies to all conifers ; and if this covering is of loose 
material it should be slightly pressed down, but if it is of 
such a character that it will crust after being wet, it should 
not be. 

The amount of seed to be sown on any given area 
must depend largely upon its percentage of fertility, a point 
which can and should be determined before sowing. About 
one sixth of an ounce of White Pine seed is deemed a 
suitable allowance for one square foot of bed on the basis 
of sixty per cent fertility. This amount should produce two 

1 If the ground is at all dry the seed-beds should be thoroughly watered 
a day or so before the seeds are sown, and when in a suitable condition the 
surface should be gone over with a rake, care being taken not to disturb the 
surface when it is wet enough to bake. 



THE FOREST NURSERY 95 

hundred plants, which are as many as can be safely grown 
on one square foot, although a greater number has been 
frequently produced ; but only in extremely fertile soils and 
under favorable conditions can so great a number be grown. 
Probably seed for one hundred and fifty plants to the 
square foot would be better. Of course smaller seeds will 
require less weight proportionally. A table showing the 
number of seeds to the pound of the important species of 
timber trees will be found in the Appendix, and computa- 
tion can be made suitable for each one. 

Sowing in Drills. The seed-bed should be as carefully 
or better prepared for sowing in drills than in the case of 
broadcast sowing, for any lumps near the surface will greatly 
interfere with satisfactory work, and especially so if the 
seeds are to be sown with a seed drill, as then the covering 
must be that of which the surface of the bed is composed. 
If sowing by hand be practiced, a marking-board as wide 
as the rows are to be apart, and long enough to reach across 
the bed, must be provided. For conifers strips three eighths 
of an inch thick, with one edge V-shaped, should be nailed 
on each edge, the V-edge to project three eighths of an 
inch below the surface of the board. The other edge can 
be flush with the top of the board. A handle similar to an 
old-fashioned door-handle can be fastened on the top of the 
marker, and if the board is light one person can readily 
operate it. 

To mark for the rows place the marking-board squarely 
across the bed, with the V-projections downward, and press 
it down with a slight movement endwise, so as to make 
grooves the full depth of the projecting Vs. A pole with 
the distance the rows are to be apart plainly marked on it 
can be laid alongside of the bed as a guide, or the follow- 
ing projection on the marker can be placed in the forward 
groove and thus even spacing of the rows be made easy. 
As absolute accuracy is not essential, any convenient method 
of spacing may be adopted. The seeds can now be dropped 
in the gi-ooves and spaced in them as evenly as possible, 



96 IMPORTANT TIMBER TREES 

after which they should be covered even with the surface 
of the bed with fine loose soil, or, as recommended for 
broadcast sowing, leaf mould and sand. Coniferous seeds 
should be placed from one fourth to three fourths of an 
inch apart in the rows, the distance being governed by the 
percentage of fertility and the species. After the seeds are 
covered a board can be laid on and a light blow with a spade 
be given; or the operator can step on it, if the covering of 
the seeds is of loose material; if not, then nothing need be 
done with it. 

When broadleaf seeds are to be sown, the width of the 
marker and the thickness and depth of the V-shaped strips 
must be greater. Rows eight inches apart, with a thickness 
and depth of one half inch for the V's will serve well for 
nearly all broadleaf trees except the nut-bearing ones — 
directions for these being given elsewhere (page 117) when 
considering tap-rooted species. Elm seeds and a few others 
can be sown the same depth as conifers. Nearly all broad- 
leaf seeds should be spaced from one to one and one half 
inches apart in the rows, if there is sixty per cent fertility. 
This is on the supposition that they are to be removed from 
the seed-bed at the end of the first year, or the second year 
at the latest. If allowed to remain longer, they should be 
placed farther apart in rows. 

The method for sowing in rows thus far indicated is suit- 
able for small areas, but when large ones are to be sown it 
is advisable to use a seed drill for such seeds as it is fitted 
for. A well-devised one, — and there are such, — when 
properly adjusted and operated, will not only save much 
time and labor, but will sow more evenly than can be done 
by hand, although it has some drawbacks, one of which is 
the difficulty experienced in running it across the beds. 
That can be successfully done, but it takes more time than 
to run it lengthwise and there is danger of breaks in the seed- 
ing. The only advantage in running it across the beds lies 
in convenience in cultivating the plants ; but when beds are 
not over four and one half feet wide and the rows are length- 




PENNSYLVANIA STATE FOREST NURSERY, ASAPH, PENNSYLVANIA 
Showing lath screens over seedlings. — Photographed by y. A. Caulkins. 




WHITE A^t! 

In the experiment forest plantation at the State University, Champaign 
County, Illinois. — Courtesy of U. S. Forest Service. 



THE FOREST NURSERY 97 

wise, there Is little difficulty experienced in reaching half- 
way across to destroy the weeds or cultivate between the 
rows. Another objection to the use of a seed drill is that the 
seeds are necessarily covered with the soil which forms the 
surface of the bed, and unless that is loose and friable it Is 
liable to crust and prevent the tender and weak plants from 
breaking through it. 

If the beds are four and one half feet wide and the rows 
run lengthwise and are six inches apart, then eight rows 
can be placed on a bed with a six-inch border next the 
paths. This border is desirable for the reason that if close 
to the edge the plants will sniffer for water in summer and 
be frozen out in winter, A wide board can be used for a 
guide and the operator can walk on it. The drill not only 
sows the seed uniformly but covers it, thus completing the 
work at once. Crusting of the surface can be avoided by 
giving the bed a coating that will not crust. 

Screens. The seeds being sown, they must be protected 
from destruction by birds, germination must be aided, and 
the tender seedlings shielded from the burning sun. All 
these ends can be attained by using screens made of com- 
mon wood laths used by plasterers. Procure two strips of 
light, strong, straight-grained lumber, — preferably pine, 
— one inch thick, two inches wide, and six feet long. Upon 
these strips nail the laths crosswise, placing the laths as far 
apart as they are wide. This will cause one half of the light 
to be shut off. The laths should project four inches at each 
end beyond the strips to which they are nailed, and two 
nails should be placed in both ends of every other lath to 
keep the screen in proper form. 

To hold the screens in place, stakes must be driven along 
the edges of the beds, four feet apart across and six feet 
apart lengthwise. These stakes must be driven into the 
ground deep enough to be firm — they are usually about 
three feet long — and must also project above the surface 
from eighteen to twenty inches. Near the top, and on the 
side next to the plants, pieces an inch thick, about two inches 



98 IMrORTANT TIMBER TREES 

wide, and six or eight inches long shoukl be nailed hori- 
zontally to tlie stakes, on which the screens can rest when 
used lor shading. In nailing on these pieces, place those on 
one side of the bed two inches lower than on the other, so 
as to give a slight sloj)e to the screens. This will cause some 
of the rain falling on them to be carried off when there is a 
heavy downpour. While the principal use of the screens is 
to sliade the plants, they can be used for other pur])oses as 
will be seen. 

Protecting the Seeds from Birds. There are sections of 
the country where birds commit serious depredations on the 
seed-beds and some method must be adopted to ])revent them. 
A recent practice is to coat the seeds with red lead, which 
the birds possibly (?) recognize as a poison. The seeds 
should be moistened and enough dry lead added and thor- 
oughly mixed to give a fair color. The lead does not ap- 
pear to in any way affect germination. While not ex- 
pensive the system requires some labor and care, for the 
lead and seeds must be well mingled and the latter dried 
before they can be sown with a drill. It will not j)rotect 
from mice and squirrels, nor always from birds. Full and 
complete protection can be secured if tlie screens already 
des(a-il)ed are used to aid germination. 

Aiding Germination, (jlermination is best secured by a 
continued moist condition of the soil in the seed-bed. With- 
out moisture germination will not take place, and if once 
begun and then arrested, through evaporation, the seed's 
vitality is either generally impaired or entirely destroyed. 
There is generally an abundance of moisture in the soil in 
the spring of the year, and if moderate rains are frequent, 
nothing need be done to retain it ; but there is sometimes 
a dry period at that time, and, if so, the germination oi 
seeds with hard shells is greatly delayed, and i>artial or 
complete failure may ensue. 

The most satisfactory known method of controlling the 
moisture of the seed-bed is to place the lath screens, already 
described, over the beds, elevated only one or two inches 



THE FOREST NURSERY 09 

above the surface, and if necessary cover the open spaces 
with loose laths. The loose laths can be removed from time 
to time as germination progresses or conditions demand, so 
that by the time the plants begin to show aboveground only 
one half of the sunlight is shut off, and the screens should 
then be shifted. If the soil continues moist, no screens are 
necessary to aid germination, and none would be needed 
near the surface unless to ])rotect from the birds, but if put 
on at any time th(!y should bo removed as soon as the plants 
begin to break through the surface. This method protects 
the seed-beds from drying winds and bright sunlight until 
germination takes place, and until tiie roots of the plants 
can obtain moisture from the soil. Also, it shields the seeds 
from the light in the beginning — a consideration which 
seems to be <piite important, although the reason appears 
to be somewhat ohscure — and protects them from birds. 

Protecting from Bright Sunlight. As soon as conifer- 
ous seedlings begin to show aboveground the screens should 
be placed on tlie blocks that have been nailed to the stakes, 
in which position they will protect the young plants from 
the burning rays of the sun. Broadleaf trees do not, as a 
rule, require shading. Judgment must be exercised in hand- 
ling the screens, for no s})ecific rules can govern all con- 
ditions which changing atmospheric phenomena may bring 
about. There is no need for them on a cloudy day, or when 
it rains, unless an exceptionally heavy fall occurs, when 
they will serve to carry off a part of it. It is advisable to 
remove them during warm, cloudy, and moderately wet 
weather to avoid disease. They must also be removed to 
permit weeding, cultivation, and, in most cases, watering. 
There is little or no need of them after the first year, and 
they can be removed by the last of September and carefully 
stored away for next year's use. The screens provide a j)ar- 
tial shade which the tender plants demand, and, to a limited 
extent, prevent evaporation of moisture from the surface 
of the beds. The bcjiujfits resulting from their use far more 
than equal the expenditure of time and money. 



100 IMPORTANT TIMBER TREES 

Care and Cultivation. With the appearance of the 
plants aboveground diligence in watching their condition 
must be increased. The little seedlings are weak and ten- 
der in their early days and must be cared for. Their roots 
extend but a little way into the ground, and should the sur- 
face for an inch or two in depth become dry the plants will 
either die from lack of moisture or be checked in growth ; 
therefore provision must be made to sujjply water in case 
insufficient rain falls ; but what is termed " artificial water- 
ing " should not be resorted to unless it is clearly neces- 
sary. It is not always advisable to water young plants as 
soon as the surface of the ground appears dry. Examina- 
tion should be made to ascertain how near the surface moist 
soil can be found, and if close at hand, artificial watering 
should not be undertaken ; but if the soil proves to be dry 
around the roots, then watering becomes necessary ; and 
when it is done there should be enough applied to last sev- 
eral days, for light or intermittent watering may be more 
disastrous than none at all. A slight sprinkling with a hose 
or watering-pot will soon dry out and leave the ground 
crusted and baked, with cracks occurring in the surface 
through which evaporation takes place rapidly. The neces- 
sity for thorough watering when once begun cannot be too 
strongly insisted upon. The ground should be wet down as 
far as the roots extend at the very least, — deeper would 
be better, — and kept in that condition until rain comes to 
their relief. Water should be applied slowly, giving time 
for it to soak into the ground. In large nurseries an ample 
supply should be provided and led in pipes, with hydrants 
attached, so as to reach the entire field, where it can be 
thrown on the beds from a hose with a sj)ray nozzle. If a 
small area only is planted a watering-pot can be used, but 
if the ground is to be successively devoted to growing tree 
plants such a makeshift will not prove satisfactory. 

Surface irrigation of seed-beds in forest nurseries, as is 
practiced on farms in arid regions, has been tried in sev- 
eral instances with varying success. Its adoption must be 



THE FOREST NURSERY 101 

determined by conditions. Sub-irrigation — carrying water 
in porous or perforated pipes eight or ten inches below the 
surface — has succeeded well in greenhouses and possibly 
might be adopted in forest nurseries. Experiments in that 
direction should be undertaken, for that system puts the 
water just where needed and does not cause cracking of the 
surface. 

No matter how carefully watering with a hose or a pot 
may be done, there is invariably formed a muddy, compact 
surface of the soil, and this is followed by crusting and 
cracking of the surface as soon as the sun shines upon it 
for a few hours, or a strong wind blows over it. After every 
such occurrence, and also after every heavy rainfall, the 
crust which forms should, where the system of sowing will 
permit, be broken and the surface pulverized as soon as 
the ground is dry enough to work. By doing this less 
water will be required, for however strange it may appear, 
fining and pulverizing the surface soil actually retards 
evaporation. This fact is well understood by those who 
have tried it. It is so thoroughly known by farmers over a 
vast area in the so-called semi-arid sections of the Great 
West, where there is but slight rainfall, that profitable 
crops are being grown though not a drop of water comes 
to the ground after the seeds are sown — success being 
achieved by ploughing deep just before the rainy season, 
and this followed by a frequent stirring of the surface of 
the soil where the character of the crop will permit it. A 
blanket of dust, however dry it may be, prevents rapid 
evaporation. 

Stirring and making fine the surface of the soil not only 
lessens evaporation, but it admits air to the roots, which is 
necessary, and, in addition, it keeps down weeds and less- 
ens the labor of removing them by hand. Clean cultiva- 
tion is as important in the forest nursery as elsewhere, and 
it cannot be begun too early ; and that means stirring 
the soil whenever it can be safely done. Stirring the soil to 
a slight depth, but not too close to the plants, can be pro- 



102 IMPORTANT TIMBER TREES 

fitably kept up until late summer. Manifestly this does not 
apply to broadcast sowing, as no cultivation can take place 
there. Only hand-weeding can there be indulged in. 

Damping-off. During the first few months of the life of 
the plants they are subject to a fungus disease known as 
" damping-off." They may look all right at night and the 
next morning be wilted or covered with a thin spider-web- 
like film, and their death-knell has been sounded. They will 
soon die. It is quite common in greenhouses and is there 
known as " the Fungus of the Cutting-Bench." There is 
no known remedy for a plant that has been attacked, and 
unless at once arrested the disease will rapidly spread to 
all adjacent plants. Removal of all infected plants, and 
the soil in which they stand, and giving the remainder of 
the ground a coat of dry hot sand has been the remedy 
usually adopted to stop its spread. It is stated in the public 
prints that in Germany spraying with the well-known Bor- 
deaux mixture has shown excellent results in preventing an 
attack. As this mixture is known to prevent fungus dis- 
eases on vegetables and fruits, and is harmless, inexpen- 
sive, and easily applied, it would be well to give it a thorough 
trial. Damping-off is more prevalent among conifers than 
among broadleaf trees, although Maple and Beech are 
frequently affected. It is apparently induced by excessive 
moisture in the soil, accompanied by damp, warm weather 
and absence of sunshine. Thick sowing also appears to 
have something to do with inviting attacks. Good drainage 
and removal of the screens on cloudy days, together with 
providing ample room for the plants, would certainly be 
the logical method of preventing it. Only prevention can 
cope with it. If one side of the screens is lower than the 
other, as suggested, and they are left on while it rains, 
some of the water which falls on them will be carried off, 
and this may aid. 

Protecting Seedlings in Winter, By early autumn all 
plant growth will have ceased and 'preparations should be 
made to protect the shallow-rooted seedlings from being 



THE FOREST NURSERY 103 

thrown out of the ground by alternate freezing and thaw- 
ing during winter and early spring. One method of doing 
this is to cover the whole bed an inch or two deep with 
moss and decaying leaves from the forest, being careful 
not to put too much over the plants. Conifers rarely reach a 
height of two inches at the end of the first season's growth 
and a slight covering of their tops will do no harm. Pine 
needles have served as an excellent covering in many known 
cases, although it has been claimed by some that they heat 
and thus destroy the plants ; but it is hard to conceive that 
heating can occur when the covering does not exceed two 
inches in thickness. Where failure has occurred in the use 
of pine needles it has undoubtedly been caused by covering 
too deeply. If the materials named cannot be procured, cut 
straw will serve a very good purpose, or a covering of coarse 
manure or barnyard litter placed between the rows and 
close to the plants will answer better than nothing, al- 
though these may be filled with weed and grass seeds. If 
green hemlock boughs can be obtained and spread several 
inches thick over the entire bed they will prove a very 
good protection. A few plants may be broken down but not 
many. The first snow that falls will be likely to pass down 
through the boughs, surrounding and covering the plants, 
and may lie there until spring. The boughs gradually shed 
their leaves, and by the time danger is passed nothing but 
the naked branches are left as coverinof. The leaves will 
act as a mulch, although they seem to possess little manu- 
rial value. The most trying time is during the months of 
February and March, and the removal of the covering 
should not take place until alternate freezing and thawing 
has ceased ; but, unfortunately, it is impossible always to 
determine that time. 

Another plan has been adopted at the New York State 
Forest Nursery at Saranac Inn, and also at the Pennsyl- 
vania State Forest Nursery at Mont Alto, which has thus 
far proved very successful, and, although somewhat expen- 
sive, yet it costs but little more than the others and results 



104 IMPORTANT TIMBER TREES 

appear fully to justify the expense. Nothing is done with 
the seed-beds until snow occurs, and when two or three 
inches have fallen, coarse, cheap burlaps are placed over 
the beds and weights of some sort placed on the edges to 
prevent winds blowing them off. The snow under the bur- 
laps melts slowly and during some winters may not melt 
until near spring. Even though the snow under the burlaps 
should melt early and none fall afterward, they alone fur- 
nish a fairly good protection. But if deep snows fall after 
the burlaps are put on, and remain during the winter, there 
is great danger that the plants will be smothered and die 
for want of air, and it may be necessary to remove a part 
of the snow. It is well known that wheat and grass are 
frequently killed by being deeply covered with snow for a 
month or so. Success with any system will depend largely 
upon the character of the winter. If the surface of the beds 
can be continually covered until spring with a blanket of 
snow not to exceed four to six inches in depth, no other 
covering will be required. It is manifest that climatic con- 
ditions modify or entirely do away with the necessity for 
winter protection. In many sections of the country no pro- 
tection whatever is needed and in others more or less must 
be given. A knowledge of the prevailing winter conditions 
should guide in determining what should be done. 

Fertilizers for the Nursery. Trees respond to a gener- 
ous diet as well as do other growths of the soil, and they 
require substantially the same kind of food. When a tree 
is well established its roots run deeper in the ground than 
ordinary farm crops, and by so doing secure food there 
which they — except the tap-rooted ones — cannot do in 
early life when the small roots reach but a little way down ; 
and this fact makes fertility of the surface soil highly essen- 
tial. If the surface is fertile there is less wandering of the 
roots after food, and the plants grown in such soil have a 
more compact and vigorous root system, are stronger, and 
in every way better able to withstand the shock of removal 
to the forest. 



THE FOREST NURSERY 105 

Undoubtedly the best fertilizer for a forest nursery is de- 
caying vegetable matter, frequently called muck, — really 
humus, — for in such is the most vigorous tree-growth.^ 
But that cannot always be secured in ample quantities — and 
it should be liberally applied — and something else must 
be provided. The next best is well-rotted barnyard manure, 
which, when free from weed seeds, is very difficult to ob- 
tain. Still, it can be used, even when containing weed seeds, 
by ploughing or spading it under deeply and trusting to 
time to destroy the germinating power of the seeds, some- 
thing which may take many years. 

Failing to secure humus, or barnyard manure, in a satis- 
factory condition, resort must be had to what are known as 
artificial fertilizers. Caution should be exercised in choos- 
ing these. Before determining which to use, careful experi- 
ments should be made to ascertain which is best for the 
soil to which it is to be applied, for soils are seldom alike. 
Some artificial fertilizers may serve a good purpose on one 
soil and be of no benefit whatever on another. There are 
two, however, which almost invariably fill the demand for 
forest nursery enrichment, and certainly can do no harm. 
They are ground bone and unleached wood ashes. The 
former furnishes phosphoric acid, a small amount of lime, 
and some nitrogen; and the latter gives the much-needed 
potash. Fertilizers that are soon exhausted are not advis- 
able. Something is required that will last for two or three 
years, — until the plants can be removed, — and this feature 
makes ground bone and wood ashes admirably adapted to 
nursery conditions. 

A liberal application of wood ashes a few days before 
planting, followed by ground bone, will serve a good pur- 
pose in nearly all soils. They should be applied separately 
for the reason that, if mingled before applying, the potash 
in the ashes will liberate the nitrosfen in the bone meal and 
it will be lost. Apply the ashes and mingle them with the 
soil to a depth of about three inches, and two or three days 
^ See footnote to page 90. 



106 IMPORTANT TIMBER TREES 

thereafter add the ground bone, which need not be so deeply 
mixed. The seeds can then be sown at Once, as contact with 
the bone meal does not affect their germination or vitality. 
From ten to fifteen pounds of bone meal and twenty-five 
pounds of unleached wood ashes to a bed four feet wide 
and one hundred feet long will be a moderate application. 
If the bone is not ground very fine its effects will be felt for 
four or five years, and an application made within three 
years thereafter can be much lighter. 

Kainit is largely used in German forest nurseries in place 
of wood ashes. It is an impure salt with a large amount of 
potash in it. Its use in this country has been quite limited 
and it has not met with unvarying success. Like ashes it 
should be applied a few days before the seeds are sown, for 
it is liable to destroy their vitality if in actual contact. 
Other fertilizers are being experimented with in this coun- 
try, but not enough is known of the results to justify an 
opinion of their usefulness. Lime produces good results on 
some soils but not on all. It is not plant food of itself, but 
releases some that would be unavailable without its aid. 
Norway Spruce is said to be injured by it. 

Thinning-out. If seeds have been sown thickly the seed- 
lings will necessarily be crowded. This may happen by acci- 
dent or through a high percentage of germination, and if it 
has occurred the plants in excess of the proper number 
should be promptly removed, for a crowded condition not 
only tends to disease, but the crowded plants will certainly 
be weak and stunted, should they grow. Nothing is gained 
but much lost by crowding in the seed-bed or in the trans- 
plant nursery. 

Removing the Plants. In removing the plants from the 
seed-beds and from the transplant nursery extreme care 
should be exercised in taking them up so that their roots 
will be injured as little as possible. We should remember 
that roots are a positive necessity to a tree's life, and they 
should not be destroyed when it can be avoided. There is, 
naturally, a properly proportioned development of roots 



THE FOREST NURSERY 107 

and branches in a tree — a complete equilibrium of parts. 
In removing a tree from where it is growing some of the 
roots are unavoidably broken off and the natural balance 
is destroyed, and increased demand is thus made upon 
those which remain when the tree is again placed in the 
ground. With broadleaf trees the balance can be somewhat 
restored by cutting back the crown, but that cannot be done 
with conifers intended for timber. No cutting back can take 
place with these, except where a vagrant limb may have 
started out in an effort to assume leadership. To cut back 
the leader practically ruins the tree unless another one can 
be encouraged, an effort by no means likely to be success- 
ful. Therefore but little lessening of the demands upon the 
remaining roots can be made, and the only thing that can 
be done to aid the tree in its struggle for life is to save all 
of the roots possible. 

The best wa}' to accomplish this, when removing the 
plants from the seed-beds and transplant nursery, is to dig 
a trench eight, ten, or twelve inches deep — the depth to 
be governed by the depth the roots have penetrated — 
along a row of plants and a few inches from it. Then 
thrust a spading-fork, witl> narrow tines spaced an inch 
and one half apart, to the full depth of the trench and mid- 
way between the row and the one next back of it, and 
gently raise the plants out, carefully breaking the soil so 
as to liberate the roots with as little injury as possible. 
Seizing the plants by their tops and pulling them out 
should not be tolerated ; but, instead, the ground should 
be broken and carefully shaken from the roots. The re- 
moval of one row gives opportunity to treat the one next 
back of it in the same way. A little experience will demon- 
strate the value of extreme care. 

Root Pruning. It is not denied that pruning the roots 
of seedlings or transplants may sometimes be advisable. 
If they have tap-roots, or other roots are so long as to re- 
quire considerable digging to place them in a natural posi- 
tion, then cutting off the tap-root or the straggling one, 



108 IMPORTANT TIMBER TREES 

may be the best thing to do — certainly so in the case of 
the tap-root ; but if there is no tap-root, or the roots are 
reasonably compact, there is no reason for cutting off any 
unless seriously injured. It is the practice of some to 
prune uninjured roots more or less when setting out a tree. 
What the purpose is cannot be imagined. If a person has 
already suffered severely from loss of blood it would be a 
hazardous remedy to bleed him still more. 

Heeling-in. It is sometimes found advisable to remove 
plants from the seed-beds or from the transplant nursery 
before circumstances will permit their being set out in the 
forest ; or it may be advisable to take up seedlings a few 
days before setting them out in the transplant nursery, in 
order to make the ground ready for another sowing. In 
either case they must be so cared for that their roots will 
not be exposed to the sun, wind, or frost, or in any way 
become dry. The accepted method of doing this is termed 
" heeling-in." This is accomplished by digging a trench 
about as deep as the plants are long, including their roots, 
with one side inclined about twenty degrees from the per- 
pendicular, and placing the plants against the sloping side 
and covering the roots and a portion of the tops with fine 
earth, care being taken to fill all the interstices around the 
roots. This filling-in is essential, for, if not done, the roots 
are liable to become dry and injury or death of the plants 
may ensue. The plants should not be placed too thickly, 
for if they are, heating and moulding are liable to occur, 
and this will kill them. When the row of plants has been 
properly covered with five or six inches of soil, another row 
can be placed parallel and treated in the same manner. 
They should not be disturbed until taken out for trans- 
planting into the forest or transplant nursery, when their 
roots should be at once immersed in thin mud and as soon 
as possible placed in the ground where they are to grow. 
If the ground is at all dry at the time of heeling-in, it 
should be well watered before the plants are placed in it, 
and not allowed to become dry again before their removal. 



THE FOREST NURSERY 109 

Nurserymen sometimes heel-in plants to await shipment. 
If it is carefully done, and they are not allowed to remain 
in that condition too long, little injury may occur ; but it 
is by far the best way to let them remain where they grew 
until the day of shipment arrives. However, it will be bet- 
ter to heel them in than to let them start to grow in the 
beds before removal. Neither should they be kept long 
enough in the heeling-in state for growth to begin. The 
practice of taking plants up in the fall and heeling them 
in has nothing to justify it. It is true that by so doing 
they can be kept dormant in the spring and allow greater 
time to handle and transplant ; but that can be accom- 
plished just as well by taking them up in early spring. It 
is little better than fall planting, which is not deemed good 
practice. Only cold storage will meet the case. 

Removal of the Plants to the Forest. The best 
method of taking up the plants has already been indi- 
cated, but it should here be added that immediately on re- 
moval from the ground in the nursery they should be 
placed in some receptacle and evenly stratified with wet 
moss and kept carefully covered until set out in the forest 
or heeled-in. The roots must not be exposed to sunshine, 
drying air, wind, or frost. They must at all times be kept 
moist and the least time possible should elapse between re- 
moving the plants from the nursery and placing them in 
the ground where they are to grow. 

Setting the Plants in the Forest. Presuming the 
ground to have been properly spaced, two men and a boy 
should be in readiness to begin work on the arrival of the 
plants. One of the men should have an ordinary mattock 
with which to dig the holes, which he should make large 
enough and deep enough to give the roots ample room. A 
few strokes of the mattock will do this, but some earth to 
mingle with the roots should be made fine by the man 
using the mattock. The other man should receive a plant 
from the boy who is carrying a quantity of them in a 
bucket, where their roots are submerged in thin mud, and 



110 IMPORTANT TIMBER TREES 

place it in the hole so that when set out it will stand a 
trifle deeper than in the nursery. Then, as the ground set- 
tles around it, the plant will bear practically the same re- 
lation to the surface that it did in the nursery. Fine earth 
should he carefully mingled among and on the roots and 
firmly pressed down. If there are any long roots which 
cannot be placed in a natural position without much dig- 
ging they may be curled around in the excavation. That 
is better than to cut or break them off. While packing the 
earth firmly around the roots and plant may seem objec- 
tionable, experience shows it to be advisable. The earth 
should come in actual contact with the roots to secure the 
best results. If sods have been removed, or decaying 
leaves can be handily obtained, these should be placed 
around the plant to act as a mulch. Decaying wood or even 
stones serve a good purpose in preventing rapid evapora- 
tion from around the roots. 

Various planting implements have been devised and 
used, but none have proved so effective and practical as the 
mattock in the hands of an intelligent and industrious man 
who will dig the hole large enough and provide fine earth 
to place among the roots. Any method which compels 
cramping or packing the roots together is objectionable. 
Plants thus set out may, and many do, live, but to place 
the roots in their natural position is by far the best way. 

If the plants must be shipped to a distance requiring 
several days in transmission, some one who has had expe- 
rience, and is an expert in packing the various species for 
shipment, should be engaged. Unless the work is under- 
standingly done the plants are liable to injury or death, 
through heating, moulding, or drying of the roots. Experi- 
ment in that line is liable to be very expensive, and writ- 
ten directions can hardly be expected to give the necessary 
information. In all cases plants should be unpacked and 
heeled in immediately on arrival at place of destination, 
unless promptly set out in the forest. 



XIV 

THE TRANSPLANT NURSERY 

A Transplant Nursery may be defined as grouud into 
which seedling trees are removed in order that a better 
root system may be developed prior to placing them in 
their permanent home — the removal from the seed-bed to 
the transplant nursery occurring during the first few years 
of the seedling's life. If trees are allowed to remain long 
where the seed was sown the chances for successful removal 
diminish rapidly as the years go by. It is practically impos- 
sible to remove any but the very smallest without serious 
mutilation of their roots, and this mutilation unavoidably 
happens to the most important part of the root system, the 
small fibrous portion. It is these fibrous roots that send 
out the little hairs with microscopic mouths which suck in 
the moisture and mineral food, and it is these roots that 
suffer most in removal of the tree from its birthplace. If 
the tree is removed from the seed-bed when young, its 
roots have not spread far and their renewal is necessarily 
close to the stem, and if a second removal occurs within 
two or three years, the roots will be found so compact that 
comparatively few of them will be seriously injured. Such 
being the case the tree will be far better able to withstand 
the shock of removal to the forest than if it had few such 
roots, which would be the case had no removal to the trans- 
plant nursery occurred. Commercial nurserymen have long 
acted upon this fact, and they seldom send out either fruit 
or ornamental trees that have not been transplanted once 
or of tener — frequently three times. 

The necessity for this treatment attaches itself with 
greater significance to coniferous than to broadleaf trees. 
If the former are allowed to grow without disturbance of 



112 IMPORTANT TIMBER TREES 

their roots by transplanting until they reach the age of ten 
or more years, it is seldom that they will survive a removal. 
Their roots have penetrated the soil so deeply that the fi- 
brous ones at the ends are unavoidably lost by that oper- 
ation. This is also true of such broadleaf trees as have tap- 
roots. Their successful removal is difficult at best, but 
practically impossible if allowed to grow to ten or more 
years of age before deprivation of that especial feature. 
Broadleaf trees that have no tap-roots need not necessarily 
be removed to the transplant nursery, but may be trans- 
ferred to the forest when one, two, or three years of age, 
depending upon the rapidity of growth in early life and 
the character of the forest ground in which they are to be 
placed. 

In addition to the foregoing it should be realized that 
the early growth of most conifers, especially White Pine 
and the Spruces, is very slow. A White Pine is not likely 
to reach a greater height than twelve inches during its first 
five years' growth. The sixth year it may grow ten or more 
inches, and from that time on it may annually add to its 
height twenty, or even thirty inches, until it reaches the 
age of forty or fifty years, when its growth begins to lessen. 
Because of this slow growth in early life it is best to give 
it a home in the transplant nursery until near the age when 
vigorous growth begins, in order to guard against the 
many dangers which would beset it if placed where it could 
not be cared for. 

Probably two years in the seed-bed and two in the trans- 
plant grounds will more certainly bring success than a 
longer or shorter period in either , yet in case of broadcast 
sowing in the seed-bed it has sometimes been found advis- 
able to remove them to the transplant nursery when one 
year old, especially if the growth has been vigorous or the 
plants are crowded ; but where drill sowing has been adopted 
there is less liability of crowding and they may remain 
there for two years and then be placed in the transplant 
grounds. If one-year-old seedlings are put in the transplant 



THE TRANSPLANT NURSERY 113 

nursery it may be best to let them remain there for three 
years ; but this must depend upon their size and vigor, and 
the character of the forest area into which they are to be 
transferred. They should be large enough to hold their 
own there. As a rule White Pine can be removed into the 
forest when four years old, for it is then about ready to 
begin a vigorous and rapid growth ; yet good results have 
been achieved by setting three-year-old seedlings in the 
forest. If not removed to the transplant ground until two 
years old, two yeai-s' sojourn therein should be sufficient. 

Under favorable conditions of forest area to which the 
plants are to be removed it may be advisable to let the 
seedlings remain undisturbed in the seed-beds until three 
years old and then remove them directly to the forest. Of 
course this would be the most economical method, if suc- 
cessful, which it sometimes is when there is an ample rain- 
fall for the first year, and rank vegetable growth does not 
rob them of light, food, and moisture. That this plan suc- 
ceeds in many cases is true, but the chances are somewhat 
against it. 

The transplant nursery is a simple affair. It should be 
near the seed-beds to save time, labor, and exposure of roots. 
Fertilization and preparation should be the same as for 
seed-sowing. Beds may be prepared or the ground left 
level with frequent paths constructed for convenience or 
to carry off surplus rainfall. The plants can be set in rows 
of any convenient length. For conifers the rows may be 
from six to eight inches apart and the plants from three 
to four inches apart in the rows. Both of these dimensions 
may be changed for economy of ground, but care should 
be taken not to crowd the plants so that they will suffer 
for either food or moisture. For broadleaf plants the rows 
should be a few inches farther apart and the distance be- 
tween them in the rows a little more than for conifers. To 
facilitate planting a furrow should be made just deep enough 
to let the roots rest on the bottom so that when they are 
covered the plants will be a trifle deeper in the ground 



114 IMPORTANT TIMBER TREES 

than when they stood in the seed-bed. They should be care- 
fully placed in the furrows and fine soil put over their roots 
and well packed around them. Compacting the soil around 
the roots is very essential, for without it failure is likely to 
occur, even though rains should follow or watering be re- 
sorted to. The soil should everywhere come in contact with 
the roots. 

When the plants are taken from the seed-beds their roots 
should be carefully protected and no delay be allowed be- 
tween their removal and replacement in the ground. A few 
minutes of hot sunshine, strong wind, or frost at this time 
may be fatal. Cultivation of the transplant nursery, by 
keeping down the weeds and loosening the surface of the 
soil, adds to the vigor and growth of the plants the same as 
with farm and garden crops and should be no more neglected 
in one than in the other. 

Notwithstanding that full instructions for growing plants 
have thus been given, — and success can be achieved by 
following them, — any one desiring to plant but a few 
hundred, or even a few thousand, will probably find it to 
his advantage to purchase the stock instead of growing it ; 
largely for the reason that by so doing he will save at least 
three years' time. In some of the states the residents there- 
of can now secure plants of the state's forestry department 
at actual cost of production, and printed instructions for 
planting them will be furnished ; or, if requested, an expert 
will be sent to direct the work, the applicant for such serv- 
ice defraying only traveling and other like expenses. At 
least this is true of New York and Pennsylvania, and should 
be of all other states. In fact the state can well afford to 
furnish plants gratis to all who will plant and obligate 
themselves to care for them properly. Many of the states 
are furnishing fish-fry free of all charges to place in the 
streams of the state, and certainly trees are of enough im- 
portance to be placed on a parity with fish. 



XV 



HOW TO CARE FOR AND WHEN TO SOW FOREST 
TREE SEEDS 

Nature takes little care of the seeds of our important 
timber trees. She practically sows them as soon as they 
mature and fall from the tree, and their destination is little 
or no better than chance. In so far as the period of sowing 
is concerned, we may, with few exceptions, follow her ; but 
this is not always convenient nor is it in all cases advisable. 
Some tree seeds can be safely and advantageously stored 
for a time and the sowing delayed. This can be done with 
nearly all seeds that mature in the latter part of summer 
or in the fall, for with these Nature does not demand im- 
mediate growth. But of such as ripen in early summer, as 
do the Elms and soft Maples, she demands prompt growth, 
and such cannot be stored, but must be promptly sown that 
they may at once begin life and become strong enough to 
endure the rigors of the coming winter. Such seeds cannot, 
after becoming ripe, be kept many days without seriously 
impairing their vitality ; but practically all seeds ripening 
in the fall can, with the right care, be stored until the 
following spring, and some for a longer time, even for three 
years ; but it is not advisable to use seed of any species that 
is more than one year old, and it is far better to sow them 
the spring following their maturity.^ 

^ The g'erminating' power of seeds is not uniform, even when they are 
gathered from the same tree, at the same time, and receive the same treat- 
ment in the seed-bed ; and those germinating soonest produce the strongest 
plants. Germination of coniferous seeds may be aided by soaking them 
twenty-four hours in water at about 130° F., but soaked seeds should not 
be sown in dry ground unless the ground is immediately watered in some 
way, for otherwise the dry soil will absorb the moisture in the seeds and 
the further progress of germination, which is then undoubtedly in an incipi- 
ent stage, will be fatally arrested. 



116 IMPORTANT TIMBER TREES 

Seeds ripening at the close of the growing season may- 
be divided into three classes : (1) Those that can be dried 
without impairing their vitality ; (2) those that can sub- 
mit to partial drying without very seriously affecting their 
vitality, although even partial drying will injure them more 
or less ; and (3) those that are seriously and, with some 
species, fatally injured by becoming at all dry. In the first 
class can be placed the Pines, Spruces, Firs, Balsams, 
Larches, Hemlocks, Catalpas, Sycamore, Locusts, and 
Birches. These may all be dried without injury if kept in 
a cool place where the atmosphere is in a normal condition 
of humidity, and they will suffer little or no deterioration 
for a few months, but a warm dry atmosphere may do great 
damage. While Nature sows all these in the fall, it cannot 
be truthfully said that a delay until spring in sowing is in- 
jurious, for tliis delay and moderate drying seems to be 
beneficial with some species in fully perfecting the ripening 
process. Nor can it be said that the artificial care of these 
seeds by properly storing them is not better than to let 
them lie on tlie ground exposed to such conditions of 
weather as may naturally come, for should there be much 
wet and comparatively warm weather in the late fall and 
early spring the seeds might begin germination. Should this 
occur, as it sometimes does, they would be destroyed by 
freezing, or decay from excessive moisture, and as these 
conditions are not determinable it is found that spring sow- 
ing is more frequently successful. 

In the second class are those which can endure some dry- 
ing without very serious consequences, but with these drying 
is not at all necessary and germination is better without it. 
These are the Ashes, Yellow Poplar, Cucumber, Sugar 
Maple, and Basswood. The seeds of these may be stored in 
a dry cool place, the same as the first class, but their vitality 
is much impaired by that process, and if germination takes 
place it will be slow and may be delayed for a year or more. 
All of this class of seeds have a quite hard shell, somewhat 
impervious to moisture, and instead of being liable to in- 



HOW TO CARE FOR FOREST TREE SEEDS 117 

jury in consequence of being kept moist they are actually 
benefited by it. Repeated experiments show that fall plant- 
ing of all these is preferable, and that germination is then 
far greater than if they are allowed to become dry. As few 
or none of these are liable to be destroyed by squirrels, 
mice, or other animals, there is no inherent reason why 
prompt sowing may not be followed. Only convenience, or 
other extraneous reason, should prevent it. In such a case, 
however, the seeds may be stratified in a box with moist 
sand — a layer of sand an inch or so in thickness and a 
layer of seeds from one to two inches thick according to 
size of seeds, alternating as the box is filled — and placed 
where they will not dry out nor be warm enough to induce 
germination or decay. If the box is placed in the ground and 
slightly covered with earth, but protected from water find- 
ing its way into it, the seeds will keep all right, as freezing 
will not injure them, but, on the other hand, will be bene- 
ficial. 

The third class consists of the Hickories, Black Walnut, 
Butternut, Beech, Cherry, Chestnut, and the Oaks. None 
of these should be permitted to become at all dry. All should 
be planted as soon as ripe, or at once stratified as indicated 
for the second class, and they should be placed where they 
will be subjected to as much freezing as they would be if 
lying on the ground in the woods. It is not necessary to 
remove the husk from the walnuts and butternuts, or the 
pulp from the cherries, if planting is to be done as soon as 
the seeds are ripe, although with the walnuts and butter- 
nuts this, if desirable, may be done without injury in order 
to reduce bulk ; and with the cherries in order to permit 
sowing them with a seed drill. The husk of the hickory 
nuts would best be removed, if Nature has not already 
done it with these as she does with the chestnuts and beech- 
nuts. All these would best be planted as soon as possible 
after they fall from the tree, if there is no danger that 
squirrels and other nut-eating animals will destroy them, 
although it is claimed on very good authority that fall 



118 IMPORTANT TIMBER TREES 

planting of White Oak is not as successful as when the 
acorns have been properly stored and the sowing done in 
early spring. All seeds stratified in moist sand should be 
sown as soon in the spring as conditions and soil will per- 
mit, for Nature has, by this time, begun her woi-k of ger- 
mination, and delay is then dangerous; nor should the seeds 
then be permitted to become at all dry. They should not be 
taken out of the sand until everything is in readiness for 
sowing and they should then be at once placed in the ground. 
If sown as soon as they fall not all tree seeds will germ- 
inate in the spring next following. They largely do so, but 
some from the sarae tree may require another year. There 
is evidently a sort of ripening then going on for a time 
before the germ is ready to burst into life, and this ripening 
appears to be hastened when seeds are stratified in moiat 
sand, and that feature should be recognized. 



XVI 

TAP-ROOT 

A TAP-ROOT is defined by Webster as " the root of a 
plant which penetrates the earth directly downward to a 
considerable depth without dividing." Nearly all species 
of trees develop a tap-root in early life — some in a modest 
way, others in a very positive form. The roots seek food 
and moisture and at once penetrate the earth in search of 
them. The demand for food and moisture is soon satisfied 
in some species through throwing out lateral roots, and 
when this occurs the one tending downward ceases to be a 
dominant feature. Such trees are designated as " shallow- 
rooted." In others the tap-root is persistent to a greater or 
less degree all through life, although lateral roots are de- 
veloped, and such trees are known as " tap-rooted." There 
are a number of broadleaf trees that belong to the tap-root 
class, comprising about all whose seeds are inclosed in a 
hard shell, as the Oaks, Hickories, Walnuts, Cherries, and 
Chestnut, while some of the Pines, notably the Longleaf, 
have a very pronounced tap-root. 

There are a few species, notably Cherry and Ash, that 
will suffer the destruction of this feature of their root sys- 
tem without serious results, but for that operation to be 
successful it should take place when the tree is young — 
best at one year old, or two years at latest. This can be 
done by removing the plant from the seed-bed to the trans- 
plant nursery, there to remain until lateral roots are de- 
veloped, when it can be transferred to the forest. 

Various devices have been tried to prevent the seedling 
from sending its tap-root downward so far as to make re- 
moval of the plant difficult. One of these is to place boards, 
stones, or brick six or eight inches below the surface and 



120 IMPORTANT TIMBER TREES 

directly underneath the seed to arrest the downward course 
of the root. Another is to use an implement similar to that 
employed by nurserymen when taking up fruit trees, which 
consists of a horizontal knife run several inches below the 
surface and severing the tap-root, the depth of the knife 
varying with the character of the root system of the tree. 
The seedlings can then be allowed to remain another year 
and throw out lateral roots, and thus avoid the necessity of 
removal to the transplant nursery ; but none have proved 
successful except at too great cost. Under favorable condi- 
tions, and with the greatest care, except in the case of the 
species noted, successfully growing tap-rooted trees and 
establishing them in the forest rarely occurs. Some practi- 
cally refuse to grow at all, and but few of them will grow 
vigorously for several years after removal into the forest, 
and even in such cases there is much time lost at the very 
best. The only valid reason for adhering to the practice, 
even with the least stubborn ones, is to get the plant far 
enough advanced to withstand the encroachment of such 
companions as may surround it in early life in its forest 
home, and it is very doubtful if anything is gained in the 
end. As this peculiarity of root growth will be noted when 
considering the several species of our important timber 
trees, and suggestions made i^egarding the proper treatment 
when endeavoring to cultivate such species as possess them, 
further reference to it here is unnecessary. 



XVII 

WHEN TO PLANT TREES IN THE FOREST 

The time in which to plant trees is somewhat limited 
and its selection necessarily largely depends upon conven- 
ience and conditions. It must take place in the fall or early 
spring, because trees cannot be safely removed during the 
growing season, which occurs during spring and summer, 
and it is impracticable to plant them in the winter when 
the ground is frozen. Planting in the fall can be success- 
fully accomplished with many species, — especially with 
the deciduous ones, — but unless it is properly and care- 
fully done it will not be as successful as spring planting. 
The coniferous evergreens — the Pines, Spruces, Firs, and 
the like — evaporate water from their leaves during winter 
and thus make a greater demand upon the mutilated roots 
for moisture than do the deciduous ones, and for that rea- 
son fall planting of evergreens is not as successful as with 
deciduous species. But if care is taken to place fine earth 
in close contact with all roots, leaving no open spaces, and 
the tree is placed a little deeper in the ground than it 
originally stood, in order to counteract the tendency to be 
thrown out by the frost, and the work is done early enough 
for the ground to become settled and firm before winter 
sets in, then fall planting of both evergreens and deciduous 
trees, with chances in favor of the latter, will usually suc- 
ceed. 

It is true that during the winter some effort is likely to 
be put forth by the transplanted tree towards repairing 
the injury that has been done to the roots when removed 
from the nursery, providing the ground is not frozen too 
hard ; but the great danger is that vacant spaces are left 
around the roots, and if so those exposed will be killed and 



122" IMPORTANT TIMBER TREES 

the chances of the tree's living will be greatly lessened. It 
is a well-known fact that when in close contact with the 
soil roots of trees may be frozen very hard without injury 
if their relative positions are not changed until both are 
thawed out. But it is at all times necessary to protect roots 
from injury which will come to them when naked and ex- 
posed to the frost. In spring planting this danger is mainly 
avoided, and can be entirely so if care is taken to protect 
the roots from frost when the trees are removed from the 
nursery to the forest, as it is seldom or never that the 
ground freezes deep enough after spring planting has taken 
place to injure the roots, if vacant spaces have been care- 
lessly left, a condition which should not be tolerated. All 
in all, spring planting is preferable, but conditions may 
make it necessary to plant in the fall and run the risk of 
success. 

It is claimed that coniferous evergreens, such as the 
Pines and Spruces, can be safely transplanted in the latter 
part of August. That will depend entirely upon the con- 
dition of the year's growth. If the growth is completed, 
then the removal at that time can safely take place. In 
that case the roots will have an opportunity to do some- 
thing towards repairing damages done them, but unless 
the growth has practically ceased success cannot follow 
that procedure. 



XVIII 

SPACING THE TREES IN THE FOREST 

In order to secure an even stand with all the ground 
covered to the best advantage, whereby it will produce the 
greatest possible yield, the trees should be planted equidis- 
tant, thus giving each tree its due share of moisture, food, 
and light. As there must be a large part of the planted 
stand removed from time to time in order to allow the best 
development of the trees which are to compose the mature 
forest, the spacing should be such that each one will, as 
far as practicable, at all times be left its share of ground. 
Absolute accuracy is not essential, nor can it always be se- 
cured except at unnecessary expense, as local conditions 
may make it difficult ; but where conditions will permit it 
should be approximately reached. If practicable the most 
satisfactory spacing is reached by the quincunx form ; that 
is, to set the trees in each row opposite the spaces in the 
adjacent rows ; but there is little ground which should be 
devoted to tree-planting where there are not obstacles of 
some sort which will prevent the adoption of this or any 
exact method. Where it is practicable lines may be set out 
in some way and the trees placed in regular rows opposite 
each other, or those in one row opposite the space in the 
adjoining row, so that each will be given its proper pro- 
portion of space, and probably the result will be nearly as 
well one way as the other. In many places the distance the 
trees are to be placed apart can, for all practicable pur- 
poses, be arrived at by stepping. With a little practice and 
care a man can soon accustom himself to step any short 
distance accurately enough to plant trees in the forest, 
where a few inches, one way or the other, will not matter ; 
while on stony, stumpy, or rough ground he must select 



124 IMPORTANT TIMBER TREES 

the best places for the trees, even at the sacrifice of even 
spacing. 

Conditions may be such that spacing should not be alike 
over a given area. If the ground where the trees are to be 
planted is uniformly fertile, then the spacing should be as 
nearly uniform as is practically possible, but if any portion 
is less fertile than the rest, then the trees on that portion 
should be set closer than elsewhere ; for it will there take 
longer time to secure the desired protection of the surface 
of the ground — the coveted forest floor — owing to the 
slower growth of the trees ; therefore closer planting is 
necessary. 

Thinning. Notwithstanding that even spacing is desir- 
able, and may be practically accomplished at first, it will 
be impossible to maintain it during the whole life of the 
plantation, for no system of distances can be adopted that 
will allow proper and timely thinning and leave the trees 
equidistant all the time. There will have to be a compro- 
mise at some of the thinnings. Good sense and judgment 
must direct in all cases. Thinning becomes necessary when 
the annual growth indicates the need of it, and it should 
at no time be done further than to give relief from over- 
crowding ; but there must be crowding enough to compel 
all the trees to drop their lower limbs. No rule can be laid 
down for the time to begin it, or how far it should be car- 
ried on, or how frequently it should be undertaken. Some- 
thing may be said in a general way, but beyond that only 
good judgment and a knowledge of the laws governing 
tree-growth can bring the best results. It is manifest that 
defective trees should generally be removed in preference 
to vigorous ones, but in the absence of better ones they 
may serve as "nurse trees," and if so should be retained 
while useful for that purpose. It may be necessary to be- 
gin thinning in ten or fifteen years from the time of plant- 
ing, or even earlier with some, if closely planted ; or if far 
apart, not under twenty years, or even longer. The author 
has in mind a case where White Pine had been planted 



SPACING THE TREES IN THE FOREST 125 

three feet apart, and at ten years from setting sorely needed 
thinning ; while on the same estate others had been set six- 
teen feet apart, and at twenty years most of their lower 
limbs were still alive, and thinning would do little good, 
in fact would be detrimental. Then, some species require 
less thinning than others at a given date from planting, and 
only from a knowledge of actual conditions and an inspec- 
tion of the premises can any definite conclusion be drawn. 
"When one is familiar with the life-history of a tree and 
the laws which govern tree-growth there is little danger of 
going astray. 



XIX 

WILL PLANTING FORESTS EVER BECOME 
PROFITABLE ? 

It matters little what facts may be set forth or what 
arguments may be adduced to show the necessity for plant- 
ing forests, nor does it signify how strong appeals may be 
made to patriotic and altruistic sentiment, tree-planting in 
this country will not be engaged in to any great extent un- 
less it can be put on a paying basis and become a profit- 
able, self-sustaining enterprise. The feature uppermost in 
the mind of any one who contemplates engaging in it is, 
Will it pay ? Can any one afi^ord to invest money and give 
time and labor to growing trees for economic purposes ? 
However anxious one may be to see our forests restored, 
or however advantageous it may be to the country at large 
to have it done, a candid, truthful answer must be that, in 
and of itself, and based wholly on financial considerations, 
it will not pay if the present price for labor and the pre- 
sent rates of interest and taxes are to be maintained, and 
no higher prices for forest products are to prevail when 
the trees are fit to harvest. 

There are certain fixed charges which must go with tree- 
planting from the day the seeds are sown until the trees 
can be profitably harvested ; and for the fast-growing ones 
this period may be set down as not less than sixty years. 
These charges are : compound interest on the money in- 
vested in land and planting, care and labor in management, 
and annual taxes ; and when these are summed up, it will 
be found that the total cost will at least be equal, and prob- 
ably will exceed, the price for which that character of 
lumber and other forest products can now be purchased in 
market. 



WILL PLANTING FORESTS BECOME PROFITABLE ? 127 

If we cannot, at present prices, afford to engage in tree- 
planting, we are naturally led to inquire whether we can 
reasonably anticipate that any one or all the important 
features mentioned will be changed in the future. While a 
positive and definite answer to this query would be more or 
less conjectural, there are certain things which, when well 
understood, will lead to such a comprehension of the case 
as will greatly aid in forming a reasonably accurate opinion ; 
and it will be well to consider them seriously, for, unless it 
can be shown that the cost of production will not be greater 
than now, and that prices for forest products will be in- 
creased by the time they can be grown, there need be no 
expectation that tree-planting will be undertaken as a finan- 
cial proposition. If the future cost of forest products will 
be the same, or greater, and the price for these be the 
same, or less, than now, the only one, except the state, who 
will be likely to engage in tree-planting is the farmer who, 
in the near future, must begin to grow his fuel, posts, and 
other necessary wood for his farm. 

In reckoning the future cost of forest products it will be 
safe to assume that interest on the money invested will not 
be greater — more likely less — than now, that the rate of 
taxation will be substantially the same, and that the only 
probable difference in cost will be that for labor. Of this 
latter feature we can judge only from the experience of 
other countries, which is that the denser the population 
the lower is the rate of wages for common laborers. From 
this fact it will be safe to conclude that for the next fifty 
to seventy-five years the rate of wages in this country will 
be little if any higher than now, and possibly lower. There- 
fore, all things considered, it may be reasonably concluded 
that the cost of forest products fifty to seventyrfive years 
hence will be substantially the same as at present. 

It remains, then, to determine, as far as possible, whether 
the price of forest products will, in the future, be less, or 
the same, or more than now. Two important features are 
always connected with — and in fact control — the price of 



128 IMPORTANT TIMBER TREES 

necessary articles in market. These are demand and sup- 
ply. This is so well understood that no demonstration of 
its truth is needed. What, then, will be the probable de- 
mand for forest products fifty to seventy-five years from 
now ? Is it likely to be less, the same, or greater than now ? 
It is hardly conceivable that it will be less, or even the 
same, and the probabilities are that it will be greater, for 
there is room in our vast domain for a large increase of 
population, and statistics show that our population is now 
more than five times greater than it was seventy years ago. 
Of course it must not be claimed that such a rate of in- 
crease will continue for long in the future ; but it is cer- 
tainly within the bounds of reasonable probability to assume 
that our population will, in seventy-five years, be nearly 
twice what it now is. This would bring a greatly increased 
demand for forest products, even if the amount consumed 
per capita should be lessened by one third, which is hardly 
probable. From this it will be safe to conclude that there 
will be an increase of demand here at home, and under no 
conceivable conditions or circumstances can we expect that 
the demand will lessen in foreign countries so that we can 
draw a supply from them, for it will naturally increase 
there too ; and that increase of demand will assuredly cause 
an increase in price unless the supply is sufficient to meet it. 
If the demand is to be greater, will the supply be ample? 
With every European country, except Norway and Russia, 
consuming more than their forests produce, with only India 
and Japan, in Asiatic countries, having an ample supply, 
and in North America only Canada possessing more than 
its own needs demand, — and the latter compelled to give 
the mother country any surplus she may possess, — and 
with our own country consuming her forest products more 
than three times faster than they grow, what right have we 
to conclude that the supply will, in the future, equal the 
demand ? The awful fact is, that the whole civilized world 
is confronted with a disastrous timber famine in the near 
future. 



WILL PLANTING FORESTS BECOME PROFITABLE? 129 

Present prices for forest products should be no criterion 
for the future. It would be fair to insist that they will in- 
crease in years to come just as they have in the past, but 
that may be set aside as having no particular significance 
as to future prices unless resting upon conditions which 
must exist in the future ; and there will inevitably be con- 
ditions which cannot be ignored. When the forests of this 
country become exhausted, even to the state that European 
forests now are in, the price of forest products will then de- 
pend upon the cost of production — the cost of growing 
trees — just the same as for any other product of the soil. 
If any one grows wheat, corn, cotton, hay, or any other 
farm crop, the consumer must pay the cost of production, 
plus a profit, and it cannot be otherwise here when the virgin 
forests which cost nothing to grow are exhausted. 

Logically the cost of growing trees for lumber should 
govern present prices, now that virgin forests are nearly ex- 
tinct, but as the forests of the past cost nothing to produce 
them, no additional price has been added to the cost of manu- 
facture, other than a small amount which has been denomin- 
ated stumpage, and the profit which the manufacturer and 
dealer have been able to secure. The superabundance of 
forests has prevented much increase of cost, but when they 
are gone, the cost of production will assuredly control. 
And that period will certainly be reached by the time new 
forests can be grown. Therefore, it is no unreasonable 
conclusion that a forest planted now or in the future will 
be a profitable financial enterprise. They are profitable in 
Europe under less favorable conditions than will surely 
exist here in seventy-five years from now. The price there 
is now, to a certain extent, controlled by importations 
from other countries. When such importations cease, as 
they will in time, the price in Europe must advance ; and 
so it will here when the present forests are exhausted. 
After that the ruling price must be the cost of production 
with profit added. 



PART II 



THE PINES 

From the earliest knowledge o£ American forests the 
several species of Pine have held first place in the estima- 
tion of lumber manufacturers, dealers, woodworkers, con- 
sumers, and the general public. No other lumber-producing 
trees have played so important a part in the economic and 
industrial advancement of this country. Until recently there 
has been more pine lumber annually manufactured in the 
United States than of all other kinds combined ; and even 
now, after our pine forests have been greatly reduced in 
area and productiveness, the amount manufactured in the 
United States in 1908 was forty-eight per cent of the total 
cut.i 

All Pines are not alike valuable. Out of thirty-seven 
species indigenous to the United States not one half of that 
number can be deemed of sufficient importance to justify 
any attempt at cultivation. Really but few of them are of 
such economic character as to warrant it. They all belong 
to the botanical class known as " conifers," or cone-bear- 
ing trees, the cone being composed of a woody stem covered 
with scales that overlap each other, inclosing the seeds at 
the base of each scale, the fruit of all of them requiring 
two years to mature. Another distinctive feature is that 
their leaves are in the form of needles, clustered and held 
together by a sheath and are never shed at the end of the 
first year, — sometimes not under three years, — and hence 
are called "evergreens." In all but one species the leaves 
are in clusters in the sheath, ranging from two to five in 
each; the exception being the "Nut" or " Pinyon " Pine 
(^Pinus monophylla) of the Pacific Slope, which has a single 
leaf. It is of no value as a timber tree. 

A correct distinction would place our commercial Pines 

1 Forest Products of the United States, 1908, No. 10, Bureau of the Census. 



136 THE PINES 

western slope of those mountains to West Virginia, from 
there in a northwest course across southern Ohio, central 
Indiana, and Iowa to the western line of Minnesota up to 
the Canadian line, and from there along the northern bor- 
der of the United States eastward to the Atlantic Ocean. 
There are some outlying tracts not included within these 
lines in which it grows and also some localities included 
where there is none to be found. In a general way, however, 
the territory embraced in the boundaries given may be 
considered as covering the original White Pine region. 
There is no doubt but that its botanical range is greater 
than noted, and that its area can be considerably increased. 
It thrives in England, France, and the German Empire. 
It does not grow equally well, however, in all sections of 
our country in which it is found, yet it will grow in a greater 
diversity of soils and situations than any other valuable 
timber tree. Its best development has been found in Maine, 
southern New York, central and northern Pennsylvania, 
northern Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota. South of 
Pennsylvania, Central Michigan, and Wisconsin it has been 
neither as abundant nor as large and valuable, but, for all 
that, it is well worthy of cultivation there. While it grows 
wonderfully rapidly in eai-ly life on the southern ApjDala- 
chian Mountains, it loses its vigor in middle life and does 
not reach the size it does farther north. Besides this, the 
wood frequently becomes red in the heart of the older 
trees and is not so easily worked. It is seldom found grow- 
ing below fifteen hundred feet above the sea in its extreme 
southern range. 

It flourishes best in fertile, well-drained soils where its 
roots can reach a full supply of food and moisture, but it 
will grow remarkably well on dry sandy soils and gravelly 
hillsides. Anywhere in its natural range, except where very 
wet or where exposed to severe winds on high ridges and 
mountain-sides, it may be depended upon to grow with 
promise of good results. It will grow even in swamps 
and on sand hills, but its growth there is slow and uncer- 



WHITE PINE 137 

tain. When in favorable situations it attains an age of 
three hundred or more years, and grows to a height of one 
hundred and fifty feet, with a diameter of five feet. Greater 
heights and diameters are recorded, but they are rare. In 
the average forest it has not often been found over three 
feet in diameter or more than one hundred and twenty-five 
feet high. When grown closely surrounded in its early life 
by trees of its own or other species it will be tall and 
straight, with little taper of stem, and clean of limbs for 
fifty, sixty, seventy feet, or even more, from the ground. 
It was from such trees that the " panel " boards and planks 
of old-time lumbering days were cut, and from such came 
the tall masts — some of them one hundred and ten feet 
high — that held aloft the sails of many a gallant ship. 

Whoever has once seen the soft, flexible, dark green 
leaves of the White Pine will never forget them. They are 
from three to five inches long, encased in a sheath at the 
base, invariably five in number, and when all are pressed 
together form a cylinder, each leaf occupying one fifth of 
the space inclosed by the sheath. They fall in early autumn 
of their second season. 

The limbs have heartwood and sapwood the same as the 
stem ; the heartwood of those next to the stem is more 
highly charged with resin than any other part of the tree, 
and if the limbs are permitted to grow to any considerable 
size they will not drop off, if they die, as the resin prevents 
their decay; such limbs cause the objectionable black and 
loose knots in the lumber. ^ Close planting is the only 
remedy for this. Early shade causes the limbs to die before 

1 It is a singular fact that the limbs of a close stand of White Pine will 
not drop off as quickly in some sections of the country as in others. This is 
notably so from central Pennsylvania southward. The reason for this may 
be that in the warmer regions there is more resin in the limbs and, hence, 
they do not decay as rapidly. The claim that White Pine will clean itself 
more satisfactorily when planted with other species is not necessarily estab- 
lished. While it cleans itself well there, the fact remains that it will do so 
when in a pure stand, if planted close enough. In each case the result is de- 
termined by the amount of shade in early life. The limbs should be killed 
when small, and before the resinous heartwood in them is large. 



138 THE PINES 

there is enough resin in the heartwood to prevent their fall- 
ing off as soon as the sapwood in them decays. Dense 
shading of the lower limbs must begin in early life and be 
kept up until a satisfactory height of clean stem is secured. 

Lumber cut from trees grown in the open, or not suffi- 
ciently crowded in early life, is much less valuable than that 
from trees that were properly shaded and, consequently, 
had dropped their lower limbs, thus permitting wood to 
grow on the stem free from knots. Open-grown trees are 
full of large knots and have a large proportion of sapwood. 
Besides, the heartwood of such is very soft, weak, and brit- 
tle, a condition which has led to a widespread belief that 
second-growth White Pine can never furnish lumber that 
can take the place of that found in our virgin forests, a 
mistake that may take a long time to correct in the minds 
of the consumer and woodworker. When crowded in early 
life the annual layers will not be so thick as when grown 
in the open and the character of the wood will be materi- 
ally different in texture and strength. Age, however, seems 
to have something to do with the character of White Pine 
lumber. Probably some kind of chemical agency is at work 
modifying the heartwood after it ceases to perform any 
function towards supporting the life of the tree. No matter 
what the cause for any change may be, if it occurs, close 
planting and judicious thinning will unquestionably pro- 
duce good lumber, while neglect of these will assuredly end 
in failure. It is not unusual to see trees not more than five 
or six inches in diameter breast high, free from limbs for 
thirty, forty, or even more feet, in a naturally closely 
planted grove of White Pines, thus laying the foundation 
for clear lumber ; and whether natural seeding or artificial 
planting prevails, the result should be the production of 
such trees if success is to crown the efforts put forth. 

After the first few years of its life White Pine is a rapid 
grower. Its annual rings, however, show a gradual and 
constant decrease in thickness as age creeps on. This does 
not necessarily imply that less wood is formed annually, 



WHITE PINE 139 

for the increased diameter of the tree gives a greater area 
on which it is to be deposited and the accretion must cover 
more surface. The total amount of annual accretion in- 
creases quite regularly until the tree reaches the age of 
seventy-five or eighty years, and sometimes more, and then 
the amount of wood annually laid on appears to be quite 
uniform until an age of one hundred and twenty-five or 
one hundred and fifty years has been reached, when it be- 
gins to lessen, and continues to do so from that time on. 
This conclusion has been reached by a careful and patient 
examination of the annual rings of a large number of forest 
trees which were being cut for lumber, and in widely dif- 
ferent regions. 

The wood of the White Pine is soft, not strong, straight- 
and fine-grained, moderately durable, light, shrinks but 
moderately, and does not warp or split in seasoning or 
when a nail is driven into it close to the end. It is easily 
worked and takes glue and paint well. If varnished with- 
out stain its light, buff-colored heartwood gradually turns 
a rich transparent brown, closely resembling mahogany in 
color, with a rich satiny lustre. No wood, unless it is oak, 
has been so abused with stains and paint as White Pine 
when used for interior finish. Few woods can equal it in 
richness of color and texture when properly treated and 
time given it. For a long time it was the only softwood 
that lumbermen and consumers of the Northern States 
would consider of any value. It was used for a wide range 
of purposes, — probably none ever used for so many, — 
and it would still be so used to-day did not its scarcity and 
high price prevent. To enumerate all the uses it can be put 
to would be to name about everything wood is used for 
except where great durability when exposed to the soil is 
demanded, or where strength, hardness, and toughness are 
exacted. 

The sapwood is slightly lighter in color than the heart- 
wood and does not darken so much with age. It is quite 
highly charged with turpentine. The change which occurs 



140 THE PINES 

when sapwood is converted into heartwood eliminates, in 
some way, much of the volatile portion of the turpentine 
with which it was stored and the heartwood is left com- 
paratively free from it. There is little difference between 
spring and summer wood in color or hardness, and this 
makes it easy to work. The medullary rays are small, num- 
erous but not conspicuous. 

Some virgin White Pine produces wood softer than the 
average, and that fact has led to the belief by some that 
there are several varieties of that tree. This may be true, 
as it is well known that there is a difference in the wood, 
and old lumbermen and woodworkers agree that " cork 
pine " or "pumpkin pine " is quite superior in quality to 
any other. Still, this difference may come about through 
age or surroundings. Such wood is usually, but not always, 
found in trees that stand apart from their kind — frequently 
among hardwoods — and are old and near the end of life. 
The matter is well worth investigating, for there is occa- 
sionally a marked difference in the character of the wood. 

Unfortunately for natural reproduction the tree does not 
produce seed in early life. While it occasionally bears 
cones before the age of twenty years, fertile seeds will sel- 
dom be found in them ; and only when growing in the open 
can it be depended upon to bear seed before the age of thirty- 
five or forty years. At the best, it is not a prolific or a reg- 
ular seed-bearing tree. Only once in five or six years can it 
be relied upon to produce a crop. A tree blossoming in the 
spring of one year does not perfect its seed until late in the 
summer of the succeeding one. The cones do not attain a 
growth of over three fourths of an inch in length and five 
sixteenths of an inch in diameter until the spring of the 
second year. They then begin to grow very rapidly and by 
the first of August will reach full size, which runs from five 
to seven inches in length — sometimes eight inches — and 
from seven sixteenths to one and one eighth inches in dia- 
meter at the largest part. They are of a bronze green in 
color until they open, and they then turn to a bright brown. 



WHITE PINE 141 

As soon as the scales open the seeds drop out, but the cone 
remains on the tree until the next spring. There are two 
seeds at the base of each scale, but those at the ends of the 
cone are not always fertile. The seed is about the size, and 
quite the same color, of an apple seed, and to it is attached 
a thin brown wing about one fourth inch wide and from 
three fourths to one inch long. This wing is so formed that 
when the seed falls from the cone a gyrating motion is set 
up, causing it to fall slowly, and giving the wind a good 
opportunity to carry it quite a distance. Instances can be 
shown where the wind has carried the seeds a full half-mile. 
The scales usually open about the last week in August 
or the first week of September, varying according to the 
weather and latitude. If dry they open early, and if wet 
they may not for a week or ten days later. If seeds are to 
be gathered the cones must be secured before the scales 
open, for then the seeds drop out. As soon as collected the 
cones must be placed where they will dry readily. They 
should be spread out thin, and in no case be allowed to 
heat or mould, for if either occurs the vitality of the seeds 
is greatly lessened if not totally destroyed. The cones must 
be placed where the sun can shine on them or in any dry 
place where neither birds, squirrels, nor mice can get at 
them. If a room can be provided where a temperature of 
seventy-five degrees can be kept up, with good ventilation, 
the opening of the scales will be greatly hastened. If laid 
on a wire screen to a depth of three inches, and fi-equently 
stirred, nearly all the seeds will drop out ; but if they do 
not, the cones may be put into a common grain bag and a 
few vigorous blows given on some hard object, when sub- 
stantially all will be freed. The wings must then be rubbed 
off and all dirt cleaned out and the seeds put in a bag 
and hung up in a cool, dry place until planting-time. They 
should be thoroughly dry before they are put away. Where 
a large number of cones are to be cared for, a room with 
artificial heat should be provided, and the cones placed on 
screens and racks and frequently stirred. Ample ventila- 



142 THE PINES 

tion should be maintained while the cones are being dried. 
White Pine is a slow grower the first few years of its life. 
It seldom exceeds two inches in height the first year, and 
generally grows not more than one inch. By the end of the 
third year a height of four to six inches may have been 
reached. An increase of four or five inches may occur the 
fourth year, and the fifth should show a total height of 
twelve to fifteen inches. In the sixth year it may add twelve 
to eighteen inches, and after that a growth of two feet a 
year may occur until the tree is thirty or forty years old, 
providing it has not been crowded b}'^ other trees. It throws 
out a whorl of limbs — most generally five — at the begin- 
ning of each year's growth after the fourth or fifth year of 
its age, and until the tree attains a height of forty to fifty 
feet — if close-grown — these whorls of limbs give an ap- 
proximate indication of the tree's age, each whorl repre- 
senting a year. On an average the tree will have attained 
a height of five feet in seven j'ears. The buds for these 
whorls — called winter buds — can be seen at the end of 
each season's growth. There is seldom a bud formed on the 
stem between these whorls. 

The root system of the tree accommodates itself to local 
situations. In ground with a clay subsoil its roots will run 
shallow, but in deep, fertile ground, not too moist, they go 
down deep. Frequently on alluvial deposit, where the water- 
bearing stratum is low down, stumps pulled out bring 
ground from a depth of five or more feet. Its demand for 
mineral food is verj'^ light, and when opportunity is offered, 
it seeks what little it requires far below the surface. 

White Pine tolerates other species of trees for its near 
neighbors. It grows equally well with such as do not make 
a more rapid height growth as with its own kind. In trans- 
planting it into the forest it might be well to mingle with 
it other species of trees possessing the same rapidity of 
growth ; but this would seem advisable only for the reason 
that attacks of fungus diseases and insects are not generally 
as severe in mixed stands. 



WESTERN WHITE PINE 143 

The distance apart that the young trees should be set 
in the forest depends upon the location and character of 
the soil. It is at all times desirable to secure a covering 
for the forest floor as soon as possible, and if the ground 
is not fertile, closer planting than would be suitable where 
all things are favorable may be advisable. The distance 
may range from four to six feet, or compromising on five 
feet. Plantations have been set out in this country from 
three to sixteen feet apart each way, and neither extreme 
has succeeded well. As soon as the trees show any lessen- 
ing of height growth, or show any signs of serious inter- 
ference, thinnings should be made, to relieve those selected 
for the permanent ones from the struggle for supremacy, 
and even existence. The condition of the leader is a good 
indication of the tree's vigor. 

It may be thought that undue importance has been given 
to this tree. The reasons for so much being said are, that in 
quality of lumber it is the best of all the Pines ; it has a 
greater range of usefulness and adapts itself to a greater 
variety and condition of soil than any other ; it is the most 
rapid grower of any of the White Pine family and can be 
more readily grown by artificial methods than any other ; 
and, furthermore, it is the only one which has been success- 
fully grown in that way. All in all, it stands at the head 
of the list of the important timber trees of the United 
States. 

Western White Pine : Pinus monticola 

This tree has not been burdened with many names. It 
is almost universally known as White Pine, and the lum- 
ber trade will undoubtedly persist in calling it that on ac- 
count of its great similarity to the popular Eastern tree ; 
and it must be admitted that little or no wrong can come 
to the consumer should the lumber from the Western tree 
be given him instead. Mr. George B. Sudworth, dendrolo- 
gist of the United States Forest Service, suggests Western 



144 THE PINES 

White Pine, which is highly appropriate. It is emphatically 
a Western tree, and its technical name, Pinus monticola^ 
tells us that it grows on the mountains. 

It may be found intermittently on the Coast and Cas- 
cade ranges of mountains from the Canadian Hue well 
down into California, in eastern Washington and northern 
Idaho and Montana. The region of its best development 
is in the three last-named states. The author saw fairly good 
specimens of the tree growing on the northern slope of 
Mount Shasta, but was informed that much better ones 
grew in northern Idaho and Montana. It is seldom found 
growing below 5000 feet above sea level, and sometimes 
reaches an elevation of 10,000 feet. It flourishes best along 
bottom lands and streams. 

At its best it grows to a height of one hundred and 
twenty-five feet and a diameter of five feet, but these 
dimensions are seldom found. It has a slight taper of stem, 
quite free of large limbs, when grown in a dense stand, but 
in the open may have one or more large branches reaching 
out ten or more feet beyond the other slender ones. This 
peculiarity distinguishes the tree and makes it easily re- 
cognized at a distance. In many respects it resembles the 
Eastern White Pine and may be only a variation of that 
tree brought about by environment. Its cones, however, are 
much longer, sometimes reaching fifteen inches in length, 
but not proportionally larger in diameter than those of the 
Eastern White Pine. The seeds are about one third of an 
inch long, with a wing nearly an inch in length. The leaves 
are bluish green, from three to four and one half inches 
long, with something of a silver sheen, and, as with other 
Soft Pines, in clusters of five. The bark is thin and in mature 
trees broken into small square scales, in this respect being 
totally unlike that of any other Pine. The scales ai'e readily 
blown off by winds and leave the stem of the tree a red 
brown color. Its thin bark, seldom an inch thick, makes it 
an easy victim for forest fires. 

Like all other Pines it will, in early life, throw out limbs 



WESTERN WHITE PINE 145 

close to the ground and these take on a drooping habit and 
will remain alive a long time, if the tree is not grown in 
close quarters. When young its crown assumes an up- 
right conical form, somewhat like the Spruces and Firs, 
but as it approaches maturity in the forests the crown be- 
comes quite flattened. There is no reason to think it may 
not clean itself of limbs by proper treatment, although it 
generally retains many until quite mature. Like the Eastern 
White Pine it is long-lived, frequently reaching an age of 
four hundred years, but it does not grow as rapidly. 

The wood is generally darker colored than that of the 
Eastern species, being a light reddish-brown, with lighter 
colored sapwood. It is light, soft, easily worked, not strong 
or very durable, close- and straight-grained and easily split. 
There is little difference between spring and summer wood, 
and the medullary rays are small and inconspicuous. It can 
be used for practically all purposes to which any of the Soft 
Pines are devoted. When shipped East it is sold as White 
Pine and takes about the same rank as the Eastern species, 
few being able to distinguish them, although the wood is 
a trifle harder. 

No information can be obtained concerning its propaga- 
tion except that which has been experienced in attempting 
to grow it for ornamental purposes in the eastern United 
States, which has not been very successful. No effort to 
grow it as a forest tree is known to have been undertaken 
anywhere. Professor C. S. Sargent ^ says : " Occasionally 
[planted] in the eastern United States, where it grows more 
vigorously than any other Pine-tree of western America.". 
This, however, does not necessarily indicate that it would 
be a profitable tree to plant away from its natural home, 
for very few of the Western conifers thrive east of the Rocky 
Mountains. This one simply does better than any other. 
But there is enough to encourage experimenting with it on 
our highest wind-swept mountains of the East where only 
the Hard Pitch Pines now grow. 

1 Manual of the Trees of North America, page 5. 



146 THE PINES 

There would seem to be no reason why it should not do 
well when planted in its natural habitat, or why it should be 
difficult to propagate or transplant, unless the lack of rain- 
fall would make transplanting of doubtful success. If grow- 
ing trees in a nursery and transplanting them should fail, 
seed-sowing should certainly succeed. Experiments should 
be made with both systems, for it is too valuable a tree to 
suffer extinction, and, besides, it is more than possible that 
no other tree as valuable can grow where it does. It is being 
rapidly cut in Idaho and Montana, but no information can 
be obtained that any effort is being made even to permit 
natural reproduction to take place, much less any to aid 
it. Unless something is done in that line the tree will, in 
good time, be practically destroyed. 

There are several other White Pines in the mountain 
regions of the West, but, excepting the great Sugar Pine, 
they are of no great value, being small and scattered, and 
all grow on elevations ranging from 7000 to 12,000 feet 
above the sea. Not much is known of them and their use- 
fulness is largely conjectural. 

Sugar Pine : Pinus lamhertiana 

While this tree is best known by the common name 
here accepted, it has seven others, all suggestive of its dis- 
tinctive features, but none so appropriately bestowed as 
Sugar Pine. John Muir, in his delightful book entitled 
"Our National Parks " (page 112), says : " The sugar, which 
gives name to the tree, exudes from the heartwood on 
wounds made by fire or the axe, and forms irregular crisp 
white candy-like masses. To the taste of most people it is 
as good as maple sugar, though it cannot be eaten in large 
quantities." 

Its natural home is along the Coast and Cascade ranges 
of mountains in Oregon, and from there southward along 
the Coast and Sierra Nevada ranges to southern California. 
It is seldom found below 3000 or more than 10,000 feet 




Q »> 




SUGAR PINE 147 

above the ocean. From 4000 to 7000 feet appears to bo 
the altitude best adapted to it. Its best development is, 
probably, aloni; the western slope of the Sierra Nevada in 
the central and northern parts of California. The author 
saw some very fine specimens around the base of ISIount 
Shasta. ]\Ir. INIuir, as above cited, speaks of the tree in the 
following literally accurate yet glowing- terms : '"" In many 
places, especially ou the northern slopes of the main ridges 
between the rivers, it forms the bulk of the forest, but 
mostly it is intimately associated with its noble comi)anions, 
above which it towers in glorious majesty ou every hill, 
ridge, and plateau from one extremity of the range to the 
other ... — the largest, noblest and most beautiful of all 
the seventy or eighty species of pine trees in the world, and 
of all the conifers second only to King Sequoia." 

In early life the tree is generally covered with rather 
slender limbs from the ground up, and thongli the crown 
is somewhat open it assumes a conical form. Its tendency 
to take that shape at that time is far greater than with our 
Eastern White Pine, but there is, in the main, less uniform- 
ity of form in mature trees than with most conifers. As 
it approaches maturity, however, it develops a peculiarity 
that always makes it recognizable. It throws out near the 
top, long, slender, but somewhat specialized limbs, which 
stanil out horizontally or slightly droo})ing, with large 
pendant cones, in clusters or singly, at the ends. Sometimes 
these limbs reach out thirty-five or forty feet from the stem, 
bi-anching mainly at the ends. The cones re(iuire two years 
to mature and hang on another year after that event, and 
thus emphasize that peculiar feature. One who has once 
seen a Sugar Pine with its outstretched arms, holding great 
drooping cones, will never forget the sight or fail to recog- 
nize the tree. 

By all odds it is the largest and most magnificent of all 
the Soft Pines, and of the Pine family only the Western 
Yellow Pine can lay claim to rival it in size. It is claimed 
that trees three hundred feet high and twenty feet in dia- 



148 THE PINES 

meter have been found, but it is seldom that one two 
hundred feet high and seven feet in diameter is seen. Its 
rapidity of growth is about the same as that of the Eastern 
White Pine, but its long life — six hundred or more years 
— permits it far to surpass that tree in bigness. As age 
advances, its slender lower limbs die and fall off and the 
tree will show a clean, straight, and slightly tapering stem 
for one half of its height, and its crown loses its conical 
form, sometimes showing a broad flat top sixty or eighty 
feet across. This habit of dropping its lower limbs seems 
to occur whether or not it is crowded in early life, and 
makes the tree exceptionally valuable as a lumber pro- 
ducer. No other Pine can show such wide clear stuff, and 
it is surpassed in that resjject by few other timber trees 
in the world. 

The wood closely resembles that of the Eastern White 
Pine. It is light, soft, — but not quite so much so as its 
Eastern relative, — straight-grained, is easily worked, light 
red-brown in color, with rather thin, cream-colored sap- 
wood, and with little difference in color or character be- 
tween spring and summer wood. Its medullary rays are 
small and inconspicuous and it seasons well and shrinks 
moderately in seasoning. It holds glue well and takes paint 
and varnish admirably. It can be used wherever White 
Pine can be, and, while not fully equal to the latter in all 
respects, it is no mean rival, and it is superior in its ability 
to furnish wide stuff. 

The cones are shaped almost precisely like those of the 
White Pine, but are very much larger, seldom being less 
than ten inches long and three inches in diameter, and 
frequently sixteen or eighteen inches long and four inches 
through the largest part. The seeds average about one half 
inch in length and three eighths inch wide, are flattened 
somewhat, and are esteemed a choice edible by men and 
animals. The wing attached to the seed is about three 
fourths of an inch long and one half inch wide. On account 
of the seeds being edible there is little hope of natural re- 



SUGAR PINE 149 

forestation. In fact, the young growth now coming on can- 
not fill the place of the mature trees being cut. Indians, 
Chinese, Italians, and other men, as well as squirrels, make 
great inroads on the supply of seeds produced, and as the 
tree is not a prolific seeder, and does not bear when young, 
those not consumed fall far short of the amount needed for 
natural reforestation. Probably the electrically inspired 
Douglas squirrel is the worst offender. He never rests. As 
soon as the seeds begin to ripen he will, without fear or 
trembling, climb clear out to the ends of the long limbs 
where the cones always grow, and deliberately cut them 
off, notwithstanding that he may be one hundred or one 
hundred and fifty feet from the ground, and the limb the 
cone hangs on no larger than one's finger. If the noise of 
the falling cone does not attract some man or marauding 
beast the squirrel descends and secures the seeds. 

It will be seen that this renders natural reproduction a 
slow and uncertain event, while forest fires may, and too 
frequently do, kill off the young trees that come forth. 
Efforts should be made to gather the seeds and plant them, 
but instead, they are sold in the markets of the towns and 
cities of the Pacific Coast the same as chestnuts are sold 
in the East. Unless seeds are sown or trees planted, the 
tree will become extinct as soon as fire and the axe of the 
lumberman can bring it about, which will not be long. 

Efforts have been made to grow it in the East, but thus 
far success has not been achieved. Through lack of moist- 
ure in the atmosphere, or from some other not well-under- 
stood cause, it does not thrive in the United States east 
of its natural home. Professor C. S. Sargent ^ says : " The 
Sugar Pine has grown slowly in cultivation and shows little 
promise of attaining the large size and great beauty which 
distinguish it in its native forests." Very good results, how- 
ever, have been obtained in Europe, especially in north- 
ern Germany, where there is, doubtless, more humidity 
in the atmosphere than in this country, east of where the 

1 Manual of the Trees of North America, page 6. 



150 THE PINES 

tree naturally grows. The seeds the author experimented 
with did not germinate well, but that may have been due to 
age or improper handling when gathered. 

No advice can be intelligently given as to the distance 
apart the seeds should be planted or trees set out, for no- 
thing, so far as can be learned, has been done in that line 
in its native domain. The habit of trimming itself as it 
grows old would indicate wider setting or planting than 
with the White Pine. A careful study of the tree in its 
natural habitat and in all its stages of growth, with a view 
to ascertaining what is requisite, must come before positive 
directions can be safely given on this point. It develops a 
tap-root in early life, which would indicate that planting 
seeds would be advisable, especially as in its native realm it 
must endure long seasons with little rain, during which 
planted trees would suffer, so that they would be likely to 
fail the first year. 

LoNGLEAF Pine: Pinus palustris 

It is unfortunate that Longleaf Pine is loaded with so 
many names, the majority of which are ridiculously absurd. 
The United States Forest Service Check-List of Forest 
Trees enumerates no less than twenty-eight, and these are 
mainly bestowed upon it in the various localities where it 
grows. Away fi'om its home it is, in the main, commercially 
known as Yellow Pine and Georgia Pine. These designa- 
tions are also unfortunate, for there are other species of 
pine known to the trade as Yellow Pine, and the State of 
Georgia produces several other timber Pines. It would be 
far better if it should be called by its correct name, — 
Longleaf Pine, — for that is a distinguishing feature of the 
tree, and one that is possessed by none other, except the 
Cuban Pine, which in so many respects resembles the Long- 
leaf in the character of the lumber cut from it that distinc- 
tion in the lumber trade is unnecessary. 

The natural range of the Longleaf Pine is entirely con- 



LONGLEAF PINE 151 

fined to the Southern States, but in much of the region 
where it once flourished little can now be found, it haviuo' 
been cut off and followed by Cuban, Loblolly, and Short- 
leaf Pine, and various broadleaf trees ; or the ground has 
been devoted to agriculture, or has become barren waste. 
Starting from Norfolk, Virginia, it was found along the 
Atlantic Coast in a belt averaging about one hundred and 
thirty miles in width, well down to the southern part of 
Florida, and thence along the Gulf Coast to western Miss- 
issippi, with varying outlying regions in northern Louisi- 
ana, eastern Texas, and northern Alabama. 

Its best development was on the low " pine hills " and 
plains which are elevated from one hundred to sometimes 
six hundi-ed feet above tide. It prefers a sandy soil with 
a porous subsoil fairly abundant in plant food, will accept 
one somewhat sterile if the subsoil is porous and moisture 
can be reached at no very great depth, but does not take 
kindly to a wet soil. It is exacting, however, in the matter 
of geographical location, rarely growing, except in northern 
Alabama, over one hundred and seventy-five miles from 
the coast, and cultivation outside of these limits should be 
entered upon with careful consideration. Atmospheric con- 
ditions, brought about by proximity to the ocean, undoubt- 
edly largely control in the matter, yet the temperature may 
have considerable to do with it, as probably nine tenths of 
the area once occupied by it does not exceed two hundi'ed 
and fifty feet above the ocean, and much of it is only one 
hundi-ed and fifty feet. 

Ordinarily its greatest height of stem is from one hun- 
dred to one hundred and twenty feet, with a diameter of 
two to two and one half feet. Sometimes it may be found 
to exceed this, but rarely. Probably the average of trees 
cut for sawlogs does not exceed twenty-three or twenty- 
four inches, breast high, with a height of eighty to one 
hundred feet. Such trees must be well on to one hundred 
and seventy-five or more years of age. From one half to 
two thirds of their total height is available for timber. The 



152 ' THE PINES 

stem of the Longleaf Pine in the forest is straight and but 
slightly tapering, and free from limbs fully, if not more 
than, one half its height, occasionally reaching eighty feet 
without a limb. When it has once reached the height be- 
yond which it refuses to grow, it throws out large limbs, 
none of which are particularly specialized, but are branched 
and crooked, and have dense tufts of long dark green leaves 
at the ends. The leaves are frequently eighteen inches long, 
are in clusters of tliree, and inclosed at their base in a long 
sheath. They are so flexible that they hang down from the 
limbs, and even in the period of rapid growth the leaves of 
the " leader " hang over gracefully and plume-like instead 
of standing upright, as with most other Pines. The leaves 
are shed at the end of the second year. They are sometimes 
woven into coarse fabrics for mats and the like. 

The wood is heavy and strong, among the Pines only 
the Cuban Pine equaling it in weight. None of the softwood 
conifers, except the Douglas Fir, surpass it in strength or 
stiffness, while in hardness and durability of heartwood, 
when exposed to the weather or in contact with the soil, 
it surpasses that excellent wood. It is tough, does not warp 
or split in seasoning, is straight-grained, with light red to 
orange-colored heartwood, and a lighter colored sapwood. 
The thickness of the sapwood, however, varies with the lo- 
cality, and in all cases it is thinner in old than in young 
trees, and frequently proportionally less towards the top 
than at the bottom. There is a marked difference in both 
color and hardness of the spring and summer wood, the 
latter being more heavily chai'ged with resin. The heart- 
wood is highly resinous and the sapwood and live bark 
are well filled with turpentine. It is the large amount of 
resin in the heartwood that causes it successfully to resist 
decay, and the turpentine in the sapwood furnishes the na- 
val stores of commerce. Old fallen trees may be found with 
the sapwood all decayed and the heartwood perfectly sound. 
A century may have elapsed since they fell. The annual 
rings are very distinct ; the wood is moderately coarse- 



LONGLEAF PINE 153 

grained, and its fibrous structure compact. The medullary 
rays are neither large nor conspicuous. In addition to its 
stiffness the wood is elastic. It is used for a large number 
of purposes. Its tall, straight, and stiff stems have long 
furnished masts for vessels. No better timber can be found 
for the construction of railroad cars. The heartwood is 
largely used for railroad ties, and it enters into heavy con- 
struction work, such as bridges, trestles, long beams, and 
the like. It is largely employed for inside finish, taking var- 
nish well, and when the heartwood is properly sawed it has 
no equal for flooring, except Sugar Maple, which is superior 
in halls and other public places where great wear comes. 

Longleaf Pine is emphatically a light-demanding tree, 
so much so that small trees — seedlings — are rarely found 
where the crowns of larger ones shade the ground. Its de- 
mand for light begins with its birth, and this insistence 
accounts for the absence of seedlings where the ground is 
shaded. Even when growing in the open its lower limbs 
will die and drop off on account of the shade of those 
above, leaving a fairly clean stem. 

While the tree will sometimes bear cones at from twenty 
to twenty-five years of age, it cannot be depended upon to 
furnish an abundance of seed at that age, and when ma- 
ture it is not a prolific seed-bearer. The cones are from six 
to nine inches long, slightly curved, and with thick, blunt 
scales carrying a sharp point or beak at the end. The seeds 
ripen in late summer and the cones open only in dry 
weather. If the weather does not prove favorable they may 
not open until the middle of autumn. The seeds germinate 
readily when under favorable conditions, and it is not un- 
usual to find them sprouted before winter sets in. The cones 
should be gathered as soon as the seeds are ripe, carefully 
dried, and the seeds shaken out, for if they remain wet 
there is great danger that they will either sprout or mould. 
The seeds are larger than those of the White Pine, with 
proportionally larger wings. They are edible and are de- 
voured by squirrels and other seed-eating animals. 



154 THE PINES 

Observation shows that natural reproduction is slow and 
uncertain. If the seeds are not sown in proper places, or 
are largely destroyed by animals, or are not frequently 
produced, a new crop of trees cannot be* brought forth 
to any considerable extent. Another thing works against 
natural reproduction. If the seed falls in a suitable place 
and germinates, the young tree's struggle has begun at a 
time when it is least able to combat the foes which attack 
it. The young tree seldom attains a height of over seven 
inches in as many years from its birth. If cattle are per- 
mitted to tramp over the ground, or fire runs over it, — 
practically a sure event, for the " pineries " are almost 
certain to be burned over where there is enough material 
to burn, in order to furnish pasture for cattle, — the little 
trees are sure to be destroyed. Or, if the grass and weeds 
are very rank and tall, they may be suppressed. 

Neither is artificial reforestation without its difficulties. 
Not another of our valuable timber trees has so pronounced 
a tap-root, one which so persists from youth to old age. As 
stated above, at the end of the seventh year of its life the 
stem does not often reach more than that number of inches 
above the surface, while the tap-root may have penetrated 
the ground that number of feet, and at maturity it fre- 
quently reaches a depth of sixteen feet ; and, what is more, 
any interference with the tap-root is emphatically resented 
during the whole life of the tree. It does not appear to 
have the power to overcome any serious obstruction it may 
meet with in the ground. Even a clayey or impervious sub- 
soil within a few feet of the surface will most seriously in- 
terfere with the tree's growth. After six or seven years of 
age it grows rapidly until it reaches an age of sixty or 
seventy years, when its annual increase in height begins to 
lessen and the annual layers are thinner. Of course this 
largely depends upon surroundings and conditions of soil, 
moisture, and the like. 

As no interference with the tap-root will be tolerated, 
artificial propagation must consist entirely in gathering 




ROUND, OR UNTAPPED, TlMbER — VIRGIN FOREST OF LONGLEAF 
PINE, OCILLA, GEORGIA 

Courtesy of U. S. Forest Service. 



LONGLEAF PINE 155 

and planting seeds where the trees are to grow and where 
the young trees will be protected from their worst enemies, 
— fire and cattle. Gathering seeds and planting in hills — 
broadcast sowing would not be advisable — should be prac- 
tically along the same lines as for other Pines. While its 
habit is to grow in groves of pure stands, it will submit to 
the presence of other species that do not deprive it of its 
needed light. 

The future of the Longleaf Pine is not at all promising. 
It is the great turpentine-producing tree. The demand for 
naval stores will cause its ultimate destruction unless mea- 
sures be taken looking to reproduction. The United States 
Forest Service has done good work in devising and intro- 
ducing a more economical and far better system of harvest- 
ing the crude turpentine, one which saves not only more of 
it but injures the tree less than the old method. But the 
tapping must go on, and ultimately the tree is completely 
girdled and will die. For a long time it was believed that 
frequent tappings caused injury to the wood, and the lum- 
ber trade demanded that which was cut from untapped 
trees. This belief has been shown by the United States 
Forest Service to be erroneous. Tests show that no de- 
terioration in any shape takes place in the wood in conse- 
quence of tapping trees for turpentine. 

There is a constant and growing demand for heartwood 
timber cut from this tree for use for general construction, 
and especially for freight cars and railroad ties, — the lat- 
ter requiring «, tree fully fifteen inches in diameter, and it 
is seldom that more than one tie is taken from a tree. 
Besides this the trees are scarred and seriously wounded 
by the turpentine gatherer ; they are also handicapped by 
slow growth in early life, and are subject to ruthless de- 
struction by cattle and fire. Suffering in all these ways, 
the tree will soon become practically extinct unless those 
who have to do with it take measures to restore and care 
for it. 



156 THE PINES 

Cuban Pine : Pinus heterophylla 

Cuban Pine has escaped the burden -of many names, 
no doubt because it was long thought to be a vai'iety of 
Longleaf Pine, and even botanists did not consider it a 
separate species until a comparatively recent date. There 
is no distinction made in the lumber trade. The most gen- 
erally used local names are Slash Pine and Swamp Pine, 
the latter quite appropriate. 

Its natural range is in a belt from thirty to one hundred 
miles wide from South Carolina along the Atlantic Coast to 
southern Florida and thence west along the Gulf near the 
Mississippi River. As this indicates, its natural home is 
much more restricted than that of the Longleaf. It is dis- 
tinctively a coast tree, and the probabilities are that it 
cannot be spread much, if any, beyond its natural range. 
It prefers a moist, sandy soil, and even grows in swamps. 
Where the ground is not too wet, Longleaf Pine, which it 
closely resembles, will be found a congenial companion. 
Its leaves, however, are not as long, seldom being over 
twelve inches, and they are in bundles of twos and threes, 
inclosed in a long sheath. They are a glassy, deep-green 
color, and are shed the second year. They grow in dense 
tufts at the end of the branches, but are not so flexible or 
pendant as those of the Longleaf. On the average the 
Cuban Pine does not grow as large as the Longleaf and 
its stem tapers a trifle more ; and not as large dimension 
stuff can be cut from it, although trees one hundred feet 
high and thirty inches in diameter are frequently found. 

The wood is exceedingly hard for a Pine, if anything 
harder than that of the Longleaf, is strong and durable, 
but splits easily. It is heavy, — a green log will sink, — 
the heartwood light orange-red, with thick lighter-colored 
sapwood and very resinous. Thin stuff warps badly in 
seasoning unless carefully piled. It is used for substan- 
tially all purposes that Longleaf Pine is put to. 

The tree is a prolific seeder ; it bears cones early and 



SHORTLEAF PINE 157 

seldom fails to produce a good crop of fertile seeds each 
year. The cones are smaller than the Longleaf and have 
less curvature ; nor do they open as readily, frequently 
holding some of their seeds for several months. Two years 
are required to perfect the seeds, which are quite triangular 
in shape, but the wings are similar in form to those of 
other Pines. If they fall where the sunlight reaches them, 
they readily germinate, but the tree does not, in either 
early or adult life, demand as much light as the Longleaf. 
The young plants grow rapidly. It is not unusual to see 
them from six to eight inches high the first year. At the 
end of the second year, twelve inches may be reached. It 
has a tap-root, but this feature is not strongly developed, 
which makes planting in the nursery possible. Natural re- 
production will take place, however, if not prevented, but 
seed planting would give a more regular and uniform stand ; 
this is desirable in order to compel all the trees to drop 
their lower limbs and form straight, clean stems, which 
will not occur if they are left to grow in the open. The 
distance apart should be about six feet. 

Shoetleaf Pine: Pinus echinata 

Notwithstanding that it is encumbered with fifteen 
different names in the regions where it grows, the lumber 
cut from Shortleaf Yellow Pine is frequently mixed in the 
lumber trade with other Southern Hard Pines and sold as 
" Longleaf," " Yellow," " Southern," "North Carolina," or 
"Georgia Pine," as the conscience or lack of knowledge 
of the dealer may lead him to select. It is true that for 
some purposes Shortleaf Pine will serve as well as Long- 
leaf or Cuban, and it is better than either Old-Field or 
Pitch Pine, but where strength, stiffness, and durability 
are required it is inferior to either of the first two named ; 
but its great value as a timber tree should not be disputed. 
Its wide-spread distribution, adaptability to varied soils 
and surroundings, its wonderful power of reproduction, its 



158 THE PINES 

rapid growth, especially when young, coupled with the 
many good qualities of the lumber cut from it, place it 
high in the list of Hard Pines in economic importance. 
Taking everything into consideration it will probably play 
a more important part in the future lumber supply of this 
country than will either or both of the Longleaf Pines, 
notwithstanding that the lumber cut from them is of better 
quality. 

Its natural range extends from western Connecticut 
southward along the eastern slope of the Appalachian 
Mountains to the coast of northern Florida, and from the 
southern end of the Appalachians to the Gulf Coast, thence 
westward to eastern Texas and western Arkansas, north 
to Missouri, from there eastward across Tennessee to the 
western side of the Appalachians, and thence northward 
along both sides of the Alleghany Mountains to southern 
New York. Although never abundant north of Maryland, 
some fine isolated specimens can still be found in northern 
Pennsylvania. By far the best development is west of the 
Mississippi River, in northeastern Texas, western Arkan- 
sas, and southern Missouri, and also in northern Mississippi 
and Georgia, although very excellent stands have been 
found throughout most of its entire range. In the southern 
localities named it covers more or less of the entire ground 
with a pure stand. In other localities it is associated with 
other conifers and broadleaved trees. 

The tree sometimes reaches a height of one hundred and 
twenty feet, with a diameter of four feet, but these dimen- 
sions are not common. It seldom rises above ninety feet or 
has a diameter over thirty inches. It is less uniform in size 
and growth, and also in character of lumber, than some 
species, because of its great range, embracing varied con- 
ditions of soil, climate, and exposure. All this should be 
carefully observed before any attempt is made to propagate 
it artificially. The trunk is slightly tapering and in its 
mature years the tree shows a round top with large limbs 
about midway in the height of the crown, and smaller ones 



SHORTLEAF PINE 159 

both above and below, the latter gradually dying ; but it 
throws out limbs between the annual whorls more frequently 
than any other Pine, thus making it difficult to determine 
its age by counting the latter. The crown is not much given 
to branching. It is fairly tolerant of shade and not so ex- 
acting as some Hard Pines. It grows rapidly when young, 
and hence can suppress its slow-growing neighbors when 
starting out in life on an even footing. Consequently, when 
associated with Longleaf Pine it practically supplants that 
tree. It will frequently grow more feet in height during the 
first six or eight years of its life than the Longleaf can in 
inches. Its demand for light is strong enough, however, to 
cause its lower limbs to die and drop off when crowded, 
giving a straight, clean stem, free from knots and limbs, 
for a large part of its height. 

The tree does not seem to have fully determined on the 
number of leaves it should have in a cluster, as it frequently 
shows two and three on the same tree. Some of these begin 
to fall at the end of the second season, while others con- 
tinue to drop for four or five years. They are from three 
to four inches long, — this gives the tree its appropriate 
name of Shortleaf , — slender, soft and dark bluish-green 
when mature. The cones seldom exceed two inches in length, 
and hang on the tree for years. They are borne in great 
abundance nearly every year and the seeds have a high per- 
centage of fertility. As with all other pines the seeds have 
wings, but they are the smallest borne by any of the timber 
Pines and consequently are blown to a great distance. There 
are nearly twice as many seeds in a pound as there are of 
White Pine, while the wings are proportionally larger than 
those attached to that seed. Their light weight, compara- 
tively large wing, and great abundance have much to do 
with the tree's extended range, causing it to cover the 
ground completely with a new growth when the old one is 
cut away and seed trees are left. 

The wood is light, soft for a Hard Pine, close-grained, 
not strong, with light brown heartwood, and nearly white but 



160 THE PINES 

thick sapwood. All of these characteristics may and do vary 
with location. The heartwood is moderately durable, having 
more or less resin in it, but as in all other timber Pines, the 
sapwood decays rapidly when exposed. There is a marked 
difference between summer and spring growth both in color 
and hardness. The medullai'y rays are numerous but incon- 
spicuous. Both heartwood and sapwood grow darker with 
age. It is used for substantially the same purposes as Long- 
leaf, except where great strength and durability when ex- 
posed are demanded, although much of it is by no means 
a weak wood, while its heartwood will resist decay fairly 
well. The lack of uniformity in character and strength is 
one serious obstacle to its more general use for heavy work. 
Lumber sawed from it should be promptly kiln-dried, as a 
fungus attacks the sapwood and rapidly discolors it. For a 
long time "blueing," as the discoloration is termed, was a 
serious drawback to its introduction, but now that modern 
ingenuity has overcome that, no objection is made to the 
sapwood for many purposes where not exposed. 

As indicated, natural reforestation will rapidly take place 
if conditions are at all favorable, and if care were taken to 
aid Nature in that work there would be no need to resort 
to the expensive method of raising trees in a nursery or 
even to plant seeds where the trees are to grow. However, 
as the seedlings do not develop a tap-root of any import- 
ance until three or four years old, ample time is given to 
transplant before that is seriously in the way. Seed gather- 
ing and care of the same should be carried on along the 
same lines laid down for White Pine, and so, too, should 
planting and setting out trees be conducted, if it be found 
necessary or desirable. Seedlings one year old are amply 
large for ti-ansplanting. It is greatly to be regretted that 
so little effort is being put forth to aid this valuable tree 
to maintain its existence, which it will do if permitted. 




LOBLOLLY (OLD-FIELU) FIXE, SHANNON COLNTV, MISSOURI 
Courtesy of J. B. White, President of Missouri Lumber and Mining Company. 




SHORTLEAF PINE, SHANNON COUNTY, MISSOURI 
Courtesy of J. B. White, President of Missouri Lumber and Mining Company. 



OLD-FIELD PINE 161 

Old-Field Pine : Loblolly Pine : Plnus tceda 

Among all the twenty-two local names given to this tree 
none is more absurd than " Loblolly," a term of doubtful 
meaning at best. " Old- Field " is much more appropriate 
and a name which indicates a prominent characteristic of 
the tree, — its persistency in encroaching upon and occupy- 
ing abandoned fields and open places. It is botanically 
known as Pinus tceda — torch pine — from the use of the 
resinous heartwood for torches. Commercially it is classed 
■with the other Southern Pines and sold as " Yellow Pine," 
" Southern Pine," " North Carolina Pine," or " Georgia 
Pine." For some purposes there is no great difference in 
the value of the lumber, but if the consumer desires strong, 
stiff, durable timber, or first-class flooring, he will not find 
it in Old-Field as he would in Longleaf, Cuban, or even 
Shortleaf Pine. 

Its natural range lies in a belt some two hundred miles 
wide along the Atlantic Coast from Delaware to Florida, 
nearly covering the latter state, and from there along the 
Gulf of Mexico to central Mississippi. It ranges over the 
entire State of Alabama, all of eastern Mississippi, and 
part of central and western Tennessee. There is a large 
area of it in Texas, with considerable in Louisiana, Arkan- 
sas, and Indian Territory. It may be found forming almost 
the entire stand in many places west of the Mississippi 
River. Along the coast it thrives in a moist and frequently 
wet soil, mixed with Shortleaf and Coastbelt Pines and 
broadleaf trees; but in northern Alabama, Mississippi, Ten- 
nessee, and west of the Mississippi Rjver, it grows well 
on rolling and quite dry uplands, notwithstanding the fact 
that it thrives in a moist soil if the ground is not subject to 
overflow. 

It is claimed that several varieties exist, distinguished 
mainly by thickness of sap wood, coarseness of grain, and 
rapidity of growth. All this may come, and doubtless 
does, from conditions of soil and location. It is less light- 



162 THE PINES 

demanding than any of the Pines growing with it, which fea- 
ture greatly aids in giving it the victory in the struggle for 
existence. Yet, like all the other Pines, it must have light, 
and when grown in dense stands of its own or other species 
of trees, its lower limbs will die and drop off and the result 
is a slim, moderately tapering stem, with thick, crooked, 
and forked branches, that form a rounded crown when 
lifted above its competitors for light. The tree grows to a 
height of one hundred and twenty-five feet, with a diame- 
ter of five feet, but these dimensions are very rare. The 
size most generally cut runs from eighty to one hundred 
feet high with a diameter of fifteen to thirty inches breast 
high, and a stem suitable for lumber of forty to sixty feet 
in height. 

It is a very rapid grower until after seventy or eighty 
years of age. It is not an unusual thing to find young trees 
ten feet high when only six or seven years old, and at ten 
years of age fifteen or sixteen feet, with a diameter of seven 
or eight inches two feet from the ground. In young trees 
the leaves are but little longer than those of the Shortleaf, 
which has contributed much towards confounding it with 
that tree. In mature trees the leaves may be eight or nine 
inches long, with three in a sheath. 

The wood is somewhat variable, owing to its wide range, 
but in general it is brittle, weak, rather hard, coarse-grained, 
of about the same weight as that of Shortleaf, not durable, 
and with a marked difference between spring and summer 
wood, both in color and hardness. The heartwood is light 
brown, with nearly white sapwood of unusual thickness, 
the latter frequently forming seventy per cent or even more 
of the cubic contents of the mature tree. The heartwood 
is charged with considerable resin and the sapwood is well 
filled with turpentine which, however, is thick and does not 
flow freely. It is used for interior finish, box boards and 
veneers, general construction, and for most purposes where 
great strength or durability when exposed is not required. 
It must be kiln-dried as soon as sawed or " blueing " will 



PITCH PINE 163 

result. If properly handled, this will not occur, nor will it 
warp or split when seasoning. 

It is an early and prolific seeder, frequently producing 
fertile seeds at the age of ten years. From that age on it 
can be depended upon for a crop at least every other year. 
The cones are longer and slimmer than those of the Short- 
leaf Pine, but are seldom over three inches in length. They 
open slowly on ripening, thus giving ample opportunity 
for the winds to distribute the seed in all directions from 
the parent tree. It is not unusual for cones to hold some 
seeds until the spring succeeding their maturity. Fertile 
seeds may remain in cones adhering to the tree for a full 
year, which greatly aids natural reproduction, as the seeds 
are sure to be widely scattered. 

Natural reproduction can be depended upon if proper 
conditions are allowed to prevail, and little need be said 
regarding artificial propagation. The seedlings develop a 
tap-root from five to seven or more inches long the first 
year, which increases rapidly in succeeding years ; hence 
transplanting from the nursery would probably be difficult. 
Only by gathering seeds and planting in hills can any 
practical aid be given, aside from permitting Nature to 
carry on the work, which she will do if seed trees are left 
and she is not interfered with. While not equal in quality 
to some of our Hard Pines, it possesses many valuable fea- 
tures, and, therefore, it is highly important that, wherever 
possible, efforts should be made to perpetuate it as an 
economic forest tree. When full grown it can endure forest 
fires remarkably well. 

Pitch Pine : Pinus rigida 

If it were to stand only on its merits as a lumber-pro- 
ducing tree, irrespective of any other redeeming quality. 
Pitch Pine could not be considered of sufficient value to 
be classed among the timber trees of our country. There 
are other species of Pine which yield far better lumber, 



164 THE PINES 

grow faster, and are as easily propagated ; but there are 
none east of the Mississippi River which will grow where 
this can or will so well maintain themselves against that foe 
of all trees, the forest fire. By its growth land unfitted for 
any other purpose can be utilized, the ground covered and 
protected from erosion, and a moderate yield of somewhat 
inferior lumber produced. It is not loaded down with a 
multitude of names, but is almost universally known by 
the one here given, although several others have been be- 
stowed upon it. This name was undoubtedly hit upon be- 
cause the wood contains more resin than any of its northern 
associates. Its botanical appellation — rigida — refers to 
the rigid character of its leaves. 

The natural range of the Pitch Pine is not very extended, 
reaching from Maine to Ohio along our northern border, 
and south to northern Georgia and eastern Tennessee. Its 
best development is along the Atlantic Coast from Massa- 
chusetts southward to North Carolina. It was once found 
in pure stands in a large part of New Jersey, Delaware, 
and eastern Maryland. It is particularly adapted to sandy, 
sterile plains, dry, gravelly, stony uplands, and bleak and 
barren wind-swept ridges and mountain-tops, where what 
little soil may there be found is quickly dried out by per- 
sistent winds. Notwithstanding that it will grow to best 
advantage in the localities named, it is not averse to creep- 
ing into moist ground. 

It seldom grows to a height of seventy-five feet or a 
diameter of thirty inches, although records of a height of 
ninety feet and a diameter of three feet are not lacking. In its 
youth the tree is quite symmetrical, but in its old age it is 
anything but graceful in form. Its crown is then unbalanced 
with branched, distorted, and specialized limbs. It is a light- 
demanding tree, but unless crowded it will be clothed with 
limbs from near the ground up. Its ability to withstand 
fire is very great. It is not unusual to see the bai'k of the 
stems blackened by fire for eight or ten feet above the 
ground and the tree's crown showing little lack of vigor, 



PITCH PINE 165 

the thick bark having served as a complete protection 
to it. 

The heartwood is of a light reddish-brown color, some- 
times heavily charged with resin, soft, brittle, coarse- 
grained, and that part filled with resin moderately durable, 
with a thick, yellowish sapwood — the latter frequently 
amounting to seventy-five per cent of the mature tree — 
which rapidly decays when exposed. There is a marked 
difference between the spring and summer wood both in 
color and hardness. The wood is used for rough construc- 
tion, box boards, and the like, but, because of large knots, 
is not often suitable for finer work or where great strength 
is required. Trees of all dimensions, from six up to eigh- 
teen inches, are shipped long distances and used for mine 
props in Pennsylvania coal mines. The wood is also used 
for pulp, being superior to White Pine for that, and, when 
charcoal iron furnaces were in existence, for charcoal. From 
the undecayed heartwood found in the forests large quan- 
tities of tar were made in rude clay pits before the devel- 
opment of the " naval stores " industry in the Southern 
States. 

The Pitch Pine is an early and persistent seed-bearer, 
often fruiting at the age of eight years. The cones are 
small and hang on the trees for several years. They open 
slowly when ripe. The seeds are small, — 75,000 in a 
pound, — with proportionally large wings, which further 
their even and ample distribution. There are three sharp- 
pointed stiff leaves in a sheath. It grows slowly for the 
first three to five years, but when fairly established it 
shoots up rapidly, and on moderately fertile soil keeps up 
a good growth until old age sets in. It seldom lives more 
than one hundred years. 

Artificial aid in reforestation can be successful only by 
gathering seed and planting, where the trees are to grow 
in the forest, for the dry character of the soil where Pitch 
Pine should be planted will preclude the possibility of suc- 
cessful transplanting from the nursery. After a fire has 



166 THE PINES 

run over the land, in late fall or early spring, seeds may 
be planted in hills and the seedlings will generally hold 
their own with such stuff as might come up, and after a 
few years will take possession of the ground. In gather- 
ing seed, care should be taken not to mistake Scrub Pine 
— Pinus virginiana, sometimes called Jersey Pine — for 
Pitch Pine. That tree seldom grows over fifty feet in height 
or over fifteen inches in diameter. The leaves of Scrub 
Pine are from an inch and one half to three inches in 
length, while Pitch Pine leaves are from three to five 
inches long, are invariably three in a sheath, stand out at 
nearly right angles from the branches, and are rigid and 
stiff. 

Ked Pine : Norway Pine : Pinus resinosa 

As with nearly all valuable timber trees, this one is known 
by a variety of names. Probably the most common one is 
Norway Pine, a name wholly out of place, for it is not a 
foreigner but a native of North America.^ The next most 
common is Red Pine; and this is strictly accurate, for the 
bark of the tree is of a reddish hue, its heartwood of a pale 
red color, and the sometimes profuse staminate blossoms 
are a dark red. It is by this name that the tree should be 
known. Unfortunately, too, its technical name is inappro- 
priate. Pinus resinosa means resin pine, and why Red Pine 
should have been given that name, when its wood contains 
less resin than any other hard timber pine, is very strange. 
It suffers further in being wrongly named by some man- 
ufacturers and dealers, who occasionally mix lumber cut 
from it with White Pine and palm it off as such to custom- 
ers who do not know the difference. 

This valuable timber tree is rapidly disappearing from 

^ It is related that the name " Norway Pine " was given to the tree by a 
Spanish captain, who first found it. Its close resemblance to pines he had 
seen in Norway caused him to suppose it identical with such as he had seen 
growing there, which were, no doubt, Scotch Pine {Pinus sylvestris). 



RED PINE 167 

the United States. Before its great destruction by the 
lumberman's axe and succeeding fires, it ranged along our 
northern borders from Maine to western Minnesota, and 
south to southern Pennsylvania, southern Michigan, south- 
ern and central Wisconsin, and southern and northwest- 
ern Minnesota. Its natural habitat is essentially a northern 
one, but it is more than probable that it will thrive on the 
mountain ranges from Pennsylvania to northern Georgia 
and Alabama. It was not generally found in pure stands, 
but the late Professor Samuel B. Green, of the University 
of Minnesota, recently wrote me that he had seen tracts of 
it near Cass Lake, Minnesota, that must have carried fully 
fifty thousand or more board feet to the acre. East of the 
states bordering on Lakes Superior and Michigan it is 
much scattered, sometimes mixed with White, Pitch, and 
Yellow Pine, Chestnut, and Oak, and in northern Pennsyl- 
vania, frequently standing solitary and alone on a bleak, 
exposed ridge, far apart from its kindred or other species 
of trees. There is a fine virgin grove of this tree standing 
on the Normal School grounds at Marquette, Michigan, as 
shown opposite page 6, illustrating its characteristics of 
growth where it is largely in the open. It will grow in bleak, 
exposed situations where the soil is too poor and dry for 
White Pine. Dry ridges, steep declivities, mountain-tops, 
and dry sandy plains are its chosen home, although it will 
grow on almost any soil not too wet, as is evidenced where 
it is grown as an ornamental tree, wherein it is far superior 
to nearly all other Pines. Its willingness to adapt itself to 
varied conditions adds much to its value. 

In early life it assumes a decidedly tapering form of crown, 
much like the Spruces and Firs, but if at all crowded it will 
drop its lower limbs and shoot upward with a tall, slim, 
slightly tapering stem, clean of limbs for full half its height, 
with its lowest limbs still dying if lacking light. None of 
its limbs are specialized or of great length. When placed 
with White Pine, in soil and situation suited to that tree, 
it will equal it in growth for the first thirty or forty years 



168 THE PINES 

of its life, while in sterile soil and on dry and bleak sit- 
uations it will outgrow it at every period of its life until it 
reaches a diameter of about two feet, when its rapidity of 
growth is much lessened. It is most commonly found run- 
ning from twenty to thirty inches in diameter and from 
seventy-five to ninety feet in height, although it has been 
known to attain a diameter of three feet and a height of 
one hundred and twenty-five feet. 

The wood is strong, very close-grained, hard, a trifle 
heavier than White Pine when seasoned, and decidedly so 
when green, — for a newly cut log will sink, — elastic, but 
not durable in contact with the ground. The heartwood is 
pale red, with thin yellow sapwood sometimes nearly white. 
The medullary rays are quite conspicuous, more so than in 
any other Pine. The summer wood is slightly darker colored 
than the spring wood and perceptibly harder. It is used 
for general construction and for nearly all purposes where 
White Pine can be used, although because of its hardness, 
not as well suited for doors, sash, and the like. It is supe- 
rior to White Pine for flooring, and, among the Pines only 
Longleaf and Cuban surpass it for that purpose. 

The leaves are dark green, from five to six inches long, 
quite flexible, and with but two in a sheath. In vigorous 
growth this sheath is frequently three fourths of an inch 
long. It blooms in early spring, and the cones are ripe and 
may be gathered the last of August or early September of 
the following year. It will frequently begin to bear seed 
when twenty or twenty-five years old, but it is not a prolific 
seed-bearer at best, and the fact that the cones are nearly all 
on the very topmost branches renders collecting them very 
difficult. There is more difficulty in securing a supply of 
seeds of this Pine than of any other eastern species, and 
the price is correspondingly high. The tree is remark- 
ably well adapted to natural regeneration. The seeds are 
not as large as those of the White Pine, but the wing is 
larger, which allows the wind to carry them to a great dis- 
tance. Neither do the seeds all drop out as soon as ripe, 



WESTERN YELLOW PINE 169 

some remaining in the cones until midwinter. This pro- 
longed falling of the seed gives the varying winds an op- 
portunity to scatter them in all directions from the parent 
tree. This result is strikingly shown where Red and White 
Pine have occupied the same ground and seed trees have 
been left, the Red always preempting the ground with its 
seedlings, for the White Pine drops its seeds as soon as 
ripe and they are scattered only in the direction in which the 
wind may be blowing at the time. But if natural reproduc- 
tion cannot take place through want of seed trees, then 
the seed should be gathered and treated in all respects as 
directed for White Pine. The tree has a tendency to de- 
velop a tap-root, but if the soil in which the plants are 
grown in the nursery is moist, that tendency does not man- 
ifest itself very strongly for two or three years, and they can 
be successfully grown and transplanted. Still, it may prove 
far the better way to plant the seed. It certainly will be 
if dry, exposed, sterile ground is chosen for the plantation. 
This is especially so if the ground proves to be stony and 
with little good soil in which to set the plants. The distances 
apart that the seed should be planted or the trees set should 
be the same as for White Pine. As White Pine is superior 
to it, all things considered, it would not be best to plant it 
where that tree will flourish, but the possibilities of the tree 
are great in certain sections where other valuable species 
will not thrive. 

Westeen Yellow Pine : Pinus ponderosa 

This important tree is loaded down with no less than 
fourteen local names. It is called Yellow Pine in seven of 
the states where it is most abundant, and Bull Pine in five. 
Why this latter name should be applied to any Pine — and 
it is to no less than seven different species — is past com- 
prehension. To call it Yellow Pine is in entire harmony 
with the character of the tree and is in the line of accur- 
acy. In the eastern lumber trade it is very properly des- 



170 THE PINES 

ignated Western Yellow Pine, and this appellation should 
prevail, that it may be distinguished from the Yellow Pines 
of the Middle and Southern States. Its botanical designa- 
tion, Pinus ponderosa^ is eminently fitting, for it is truly 
a ponderous Pine, and is overmatched by only one other of 
the Pine family, the great Sugar Pine. While it is botan- 
ically classed among the Hard Pines, the lumber cut from 
it stands intermediate in character between that from the 
Hard Pines of the Southern States and the White Pines 
already described ; and, therefore, there is ample reason 
for bestowing such a name as will convey to the dealer and 
consumer a truthful idea of its character. It should never 
be palmed off as a soft or White Pine, nor for a hard, re- 
sinous Southern Yellow Pine. It has enough good qual- 
ities to enable it to stand as a class by itself. 

It has a wide range in the United States, extending from 
the Canadian line southward to Lower California and from 
the Great Plains westward to the Pacific Ocean. East of 
the Rocky Mountains it takes on a somewhat modified 
form and is botanically known as Pinus ponderosa scop- 
ulorum; and on the mountains from southern Oregon to 
Lower California there is another near relative known as 
Jeffrey Pine {Pinus jejfreyi^. These two so closely re- 
semble the Western Yellow Pine, in character and habit 
of growth, and in quality of lumber cut from each, that they 
will here be considered as practically identical.^ 

It is not alone a giant among the Pines, but also among 
nearly all other trees. It is known to have reached a height 
of two hundred feet, with a diameter of eight feet, and it 
is claimed that trees two hundred and fifty feet high and 
twelve feet in diameter have been seen, but such must be 
very rare. That it may reach a great size is certain, for, in 

^ " Jeffrey Pine is scarcely less magnificent in size than its associate, the 
Western Yellow Pine. Some specialists consider it a variety of Pinus ponde- 
rosa, which it resembles so closely in its habits and soil and climatic require- 
ments that from the forester's point of view there appears to be no pract- 
ical reason for distinguishing the two." — George B. Sudworth, in " Forest 
Trees of the Pacific Slope," page 47, United States Forest Service, 1908. 



WESTERN YELLOW PINE 171 

favored situations, it grows rapidly and uniformly and lives 
to the age of five hundred years. It grows from near sea 
level to 7000 feet above. It may be found growing on the 
top of dry ridges, on mountain slopes, on high mesas, 
in dry valleys, and in canyons. It thrives well in volcanic 
ashes, as will be seen around the base of Mount Shasta, 
on the headwaters of McCloud and Klamath rivers, and 
in the glacial moraines and drifts throughout the great 
mountain regions ; but insists on a well-drained soil, as it 
requires little soil moisture, apparently less than any other 
of our valuable timber Pines. It is very variable in char- 
acter and size and in quality of product, which is not to be 
wondered at when the diversities of climate, soil, and ele- 
vation in which it grows are considered. It is deep-rooted 
and can withstand the gales that sweep the sides and tops 
of the ridges and scour the valleys where it grows. 

It is essentially a light-demanding tree. It insists on this 
during its whole life, but most after the age of fifteen 
or twenty years. Probably not to exceed fifty trees to the 
acre could be grown to full maturity. The crowns of mature 
trees do not frequently touch each other or those of other 
species. Like most other trees it sends out limbs low down 
in early life, and if continually in the open these branches 
persist for the full life of the tree and give it a low crown ; 
but if grown in a close stand it will throw up a tall, straight, 
slightly tapering, massive stem, clean of limbs for nearly 
or quite one half its entire height. Under such conditions 
it will form an open crown, somewhat columnar, with 
specialized limbs which turn upward at their extremities. 
Frequently one or more large limbs may be thrown out, 
and above that point an open, clean stem is seen for twenty 
or more feet before other limbs are formed. 

The bark on mature trees may reach a thickness of four 
inches. It is deeply furrowed and of a cinnamon-brown 
color. In early life it is so thin that fire works serious 
havoc, but the mature trees can endure a moderate ground 
fire and the foliage is so far above that the trees escape 



172 THE PINES 

serious injury. Western Yellow Pine is frequently found 
in pure stands, but it tolerates other species for neighbors 
if not too close. The extended area of its natural habitat 
makes it one of the most important trees of the great West. 
The leaves are borne in heavy, brush-like clusters at the 
ends of the bare branches, and are deep yellow-green, gen- 
erally three in a sheath, but sometimes two, four, and even 
five. They var}' from five to eleven inches in length and re- 
main on the tree three or four years or more — Professor 
Sargent says four to nine. 

The heartwood varies greatly in color as well as in other 
economic features. It may be found from a pale lemon- 
yellow to an orange-brown, and, while it is usually of heavy 
weight, wood may be found fully five or even ten per cent 
lighter. It is sometimes so light and free from resin that it 
is sold as White Pine and provides a reasonably fair sub- 
stitute. The sapwood is nearly white and of varying thick- 
ness. Although not strictly applicable to all cases — owing 
to variability — it may be said of the wood that it is gen- 
erally heavy, hard, fairly strong, brittle, and fine-grained, 
but not durable, although all these features may be differ- 
ent through varying conditions of climate and soil. There is 
some difi'erence between sjning and suuuner wood, but gen- 
erally not enough to interfere seriously with easy working. 
The medullary rays are somewhat numerous, but not at all 
conspicuous. It is used for heavy construction work, rail- 
road ties, telegraph poles, mine timbers, and for about all 
purposes to which a good, not very strong, but moderately 
bard Pine can be put. 

It is a prolific seeder, bearing cones nearly every year, 
and an ample yield may be expected about ever}' four 
years. Like most other Pines, it does not produce many 
fertile seeds before twenty-five or thirty years of age. After 
that its seeds ai-e unusually fertile. The seed is not much 
larger than that of White Pine, but with a broader wing, 
which permits its being blown to a great distance. The 
cones open early in August of the second year and are vari- 



LODGEPOLE I'lNE 173 

able in size and color. Squirrels and birds consume large 
quantities, but in spite of that drain upon the supply, natu- 
ral reproduction takes place readily and can be largely re- 
lied on if any reasonable care be taken to promote it. Mr. 
George Jl Sud worth, of the Forest Service, estimates that 
a single tree will naturally reseed a quarter of an acre in a 
year. It is evident that planting seeds, where natural refor- 
estation may fail for any reason, will be entirely successful, 
and that growing plants in a nursery and transplanting 
them into the forest would not be advisable, owing, in part, 
to the tap-root they have and to the great loss whicii must 
inevitably ensue through lack of rainfall when the little re- 
cently ])lanted trees would most need it. Efforts have been 
made to grow the tree in the eastern part of the United 
States for ornamental purposes, but with such poor success 
that the attempt to i:)ropagate it for forest purposes should 
be undertaken (m a very limited scale, until it is shown to 
be more frequently successful as an ornamental tree. It 
grows fairly well in Europe and is being quite extensively 
planted tiiere. The species Jfi^m/i seems to do Ijetter than 
pondcrosa in our eastern climate, and it is possible that 
the other variety — ponderosa scopidoimm — may do well 
on high and exposed elevations. It certainly would be well 
to experiment in that direction, for it might serve where 
none of our eastern Pines will flourish. 

LoDGEPOLE Pine : Plnus murrayana 

This tree is generally known by the common name here 
given. There are several other local names, but none so 
a])propriate. The appellation " Lodgepole " arises from its 
characteristic habit, when in dense stands, of growing tall, 
smooth, and straight, but with a small stem, thus fitting it 
for lodge- or tent-poles. None of our western Pines have a 
wider natural range, nor are any of more diversified habits 
of growth. This wide diversion of habitat and character 
has led to much confusion, and to the claim that there are 



174 THE PINES 

several species quite similar ; but such a contention cannot 
be accepted. jNIr. George Ix Smlwortli, United States For- 
est Service dendrologist, ^ declares that '* the reproductive 
organs of the supposedly dififerent trees are essentially the 
same. With no characters found in these organs to warrant 
a distinction of species, the other so-called distinctions de- 
pended upon are believed to be unworthy of serious con- 
sideration." 

Its natural range in the United* States — it is also found 
in Canada and Alaska — reaches from the Canadian line 
to southern California, and, intermittently where trees grow, 
from the foot of the eastern slope of the Kocky Mountains 
to the Pacific Ocean. Location, climate, soil, all appear to 
have much to do with its growth, character, and usefulness. 
It may be found on elevations from sea level to 11,000 
feet above. On the Pacific Slope it is a low tree, and 
when in the open forms a dense pyramidal crown, with 
many-forked branches from the ground up, and is of no 
great commercial value. When grown in douse stands in 
its eastern habitat, it has a tall, clean, slender stem, with 
a rounded, short, and small-branched crown, sometimes at- 
taining dimensions suitable for saw timber, but is usually 
from six to twelve inches in diameter. In some regions it 
grows larger, reaching a height of one hundred feet and 
a diameter of even three feet. The author has seen many 
dense groves in the Klamath and JNIoiuit Shasta region 
and but few trees were found over ten inches in diameter, 
and seldom were any seen as large as that. Whore densely 
grown they are free of large limbs for more than two thirds 
of their height. 

The wood is soft, variable in grain, fine in douse stands, 
and moderately coarse when grown in tlie open. On the 
Pacific Sk^pe the wood is of a reddish brown, but in the 
eastern ranges it is a yellowish brown. The eastern wood 
is the lightest, has less resin, is straighter-grained tlian the 
western, and easily worked. It is used for general con- 

^ Forest Trees of tht: Pacijic Slope, pag^e 49. 



SCOTCH PINE 175 

struction when large enough for the saw, and for all pur- 
poses to which small, straight, and not very strong wood 
can be i)ut. Growing as widely as it does, Lodgepole Pine 
is of much commercial value especially in regions where 
nothing better can be found, and fortunately, it is sold 
under its true name. 

It is a prolific seeder, but may not open its cones for 
years unless the trees are killed by fire. When that occurs 
natural reproduction will take place to a greater extent 
than with almost any other tree, but it will not so happen 
when the trees are otherwise destroyed. It is practically 
the only species wjiere reproduction mainly depends upon 
the loss by fire of the parent seed-producing tree. The 
seeds can endure considerable heat, and this heat seems 
essential to their release from the cones and probably aids 
in their germination. It bears seeds when (piite young, and 
if properly cared for, and the ground burned at the right 
time, natural reproduction will usually be com})lete. As it 
is emphatically a light-demanding tree, it must be grown 
in close stands to be of commercial value. When it attains 
its proper height, growth thinning would be advantageous. 
It is not known that any attempt at artificial reproduction 
has been made. Where clean cutting has taken place, re- 
generation does not occur to such an extent as would be 
necessary to produce a stand sufficiently dense ; and such 
trees as may be left for any cause are soon blown down or 
die from changed surroundings. Gathering and heating the 
cones to obtain the seed, and then planting them, or burn- 
ing the tract before cutting, must take place to insure sat- 
isfactory reproduction. 

Scotch Pine : Pinus sylvestris 

This foreigner comes to us with high recommendations 
from the regions of its natural as well as its adopted home 
abroad. It is widely distributed throughout Europe and 
northern Asia, and is a very important timber tree on the 



176 THE PINES 

former continent. It belongs to the class of hard Pines, al- 
though not as highly charged with resin as many of them 
are. In its home it sometimes attains a height of one hun- 
dred to one hundred and twenty-five feet, with a diameter 
of four or five feet, and when grown in the forest may be 
clean of limbs for one third to one half its height. In some 
respects it has the characteristics of our Norway Pine, but 
is less liable to drop its lower limbs when growing either 
in an open or in a dense stand. It is of ironclad hardiness 
and makes moderate demands upon the soil for mineral 
food, but prefers that of fair fertility with a well-drained 
subsoil. As it has not been grown to maturity for timber 
in this country, we know comparatively little about its 
economic value. Except in some localities in the Western 
States it has been planted for ornamental purposes only, 
and experience in that direction does not give promise of 
good results when attempts shall be made to grow it for 
lumber. It appears to grow well for twenty to twenty-five 
years and then shows signs of weakened vitality. Some 
groves planted for forest purposes in a western state have 
a large number of crooked and distorted trees. This may 
come from some injury or defect in the " leader," although 
crooks appear between the annual whorls of limbs ; or it 
may come from improperly selected seed,^ for it is claimed 
that seed from abroad is collected from dwarfed and de- 
fective trees because it can be more easily gathered from 
such. This may be so, and if it is there is a chance, through 
proper selection of seed, for the tree to be as valuable here 
as abroad. 

In Europe the wood is strong, elastic, close-grained, not 
difficult to work, and in appearance somewhat resembles 
our Norway Pine. It is not durable when placed in con- 
tact with the soil, notwithstanding that it is a trifle resinous. 
It takes paint well, is used for nearly all building purposes, 

^ " Scotch Pine in the Baltic provinces invariably has straighter trunks 
and yields wood of a higher quality than the Scotch Pine of central Ger- 
many." — Raphael Zon, in Forest Quarterly, vol. ix, No. 2, page 217. 




SCOTCH PINE IN DENSE STAND ON CAMPUS, IOWA STATE COLLEGE, 

AMES, IOWA. NOTE CROOKED STEMS 

Courtesy of Iowa State College. 



SCOTCH PINE 177 

and is esteemed a valuable wood. It furnishes the red and 
yellow " deals " of the United Kingdom. It is also chemi- 
cally treated for railroad ties, and is being planted by some 
railroads in this country for that purpose. 

It is a rapid grower and a prolific seed-bearer, frequently 
producing seed every other year. The seeds are small, run- 
ning from 70,000 to 75,000 to the pound, with about fifty 
per cent of fertility. The wing attached to the seed is pro- 
portionally larger than the average conifer, which is an ad- 
vantage in natural seeding, but notwithstanding these fea- 
tures, so favorable to natural reproduction, that method of 
propagation is not generally followed abroad, for the tree 
is easily grown in the nursery and bears transplanting re- 
markably well. Plants may be set out in the forest when 
two years old, or may be left in the seed-bed for another 
year, but they would best be removed from there and placed 
in the transplant nursery, there to remain for two years, 
when they will be strong enough to withstand severe condi- 
tions in the forest. It is a much more rapid grower in early 
life than our White Pine, and seedlings three years old 
generally range from eight to twelve inches in height. Pro- 
pagation and planting in the forest is carried on in Europe 
substantially the same as for White Pine. 



THE SPRUCES 

When all things concerning our native Spruces are 
taken into account, there will be found but four of the 
seven species of sufficient economic importance to justify 
consideration ; and there are certain features pertaining to 
these four which render questionable any effort at repro- 
duction, other than in aiding Nature by leaving a sufficient 
number of seed trees, by planting seeds where seed trees 
are absent, and by protecting from fires at all times. But 
the economic importance of the four species, and their 
power to reproduce themselves when afforded an opportun- 
ity, should impel a vigorous effort to bring about so de- 
sirable a result. Those worthy of consideration are Red 
Spruce (^Picea ruhens)\ White Spruce (JPicca canade7isi&)\ 
Engelmann Spruce (JPicea engelmanni)\ and Tideland 
Spruce (^P'lcea sltchensis). 

Until comparatively recent times the Spruces were not 
very favorably looked upon by lumbermen or consumers, 
and hence dealers and manufacturers made little effort to 
put lumber cut from any of them on the market. The con- 
stantly decreasing supply of Pine, however, caused more 
attention to be paid to other conifers, and it was then dis- 
covered that for many purposes Spruce serves as well as 
the coarser grades of Pine and for some uses better. About 
the same time that its good qualities as a timber tree were 
discovered, it was likewise learned that it was extremely 
valuable for pulp wood ; that only Poplar — commonly 
called Trembling Aspen — was superior to it for that pur- 
pose. Then the destruction of the Spruce forests in the 
eastern United States was begun in good earnest and it has 
since been carried on with accelerating speed and thorough- 
ness; and unless something is done to arrest that destruc- 
tion, the virgin Spruce forests will disaT)pear and the future 



RED SPRUCE 179 

supply of that wood for pulp must come from such second 
growth as modern methods of cutting may permit and from 
Canada's waning supply. The Spruces east of the Rocky 
Mountains are slow growers,^ notwithstanding a general 
belief and frequent assertion to the contrary, and this is 
especially so in early life, and the danger of exhausting the 
supply of pulp wood is great and imminent. To depend 
upon another country, and that country with a lessening 
supply to dispose of, is not a satisfactory condition of things 
to contemplate. 

Although the Spruces are locally given various and ab- 
surd names, lumber cut from both of the eastern trees is 
known in the trade as " spruce," without distinction as to 
species. No material wrong can come to the consumer from 
this, as the only essential difference lies in the color, but 
putting ten or fifteen per cent of " balsam" in a consign- 
ment is quite a different proposition. 

Red Spruce : Picea ruhens 

The natural range of the Red Spruce comprises a wedo-e- 
shaped region, with the New England States and New 
York for the wide end and eastern Tennessee for the apex 
or sharp end. Throughout its range south of central New 
York it is confined to elevated regions, although it is sel- 
dom found on the very crests of the mountains. Its best 
development is to be seen in its northern habitat. As it 
requires a cool atmosphere, the region south of Virginia 
does not produce as vigorous a growth as that farther north. 
It never attains a very large size. Occasionally trees are 

1 In a paper read before the Canadian Forestry Association, February, 
1909, Dr. B. E. Fernow, speaking of the growth of White Pine, adds : " The 
Spruce, a much slower grower, makes, under most favorable forest condi- 
tions, one inch in seven, or more frequently one in nine years, which would 
bring a nine-inch tree in the average to one hundred years. But in virgin 
forests, where competition among species and individuals retards develop- 
ment, one inch in twelve to fifteen years, and more, is the usual rate of 
growth." 



180 THE SPRUCES 

found one hundred feet high and three feet in diameter, 
but the average of what are deemed mature trees is sel- 
dom above eighty feet in height and twenty to thirty inches 
in diameter. North of central New York, and in the New 
England States, White Spruce (^Picea canadensis) is gen- 
erally mingled with it, frequently ujj to forty or fifty per 
cent, but White Spruce in New Hampshire and Vermont 
is confined to the northern portion of those states. They 
can there be found in pure or mixed stands on the high 
slopes and tops of the mountains as well as in the swamps, 
while on the lower slopes, ridges, and intervales they are 
mingled with Fir, Birch, Beech, and Maple. Notwithstand- 
ing that they are found growing in exposed situations, 
they are not as well calculated for such localities as where 
protected from strong winds, for they are shallow-rooted 
and liable to be blown down. 

Like all others of the Spruce family, the tree puts on 
a stiff, formal, compact, and acutely conical crown when 
grown in the open, and when crowded it retains the same 
spire-like top of green limbs above the lower dead and 
dying ones. When growing in the open, the lower limbs, 
of which it has a generous supply, remain alive for a long 
time, but when crowded they die for want of light, but do 
not readily decay and drop off. This retention of its limbs 
causes knots in the lumber, but they are generally small 
and sound. The stem is straight, somewhat tapering, and 
free from large limbs, the tree rarely developing them. 

The wood of the Red Spruce is light, close-grained, not 
strong, soft, with heartwood slightly tinged with red, and 
paler sapwood, which is usually of moderate thickness, al- 
though sometimes two inches thick in mature trees. There 
is little difference between spring and summer wood, and 
the medullary rays are small and inconspicuous. It takes 
glue and paint well. It is largely manufactured into lum- 
ber used for general construction where not exposed. When 
cut into beams and posts, it is apt to warp and twist in 
seasoning. Its greatest use is for pulp, and more Spruce 



RED SPRUCE 181 

and Fir are consumed for that purpose than all other kinds 
of wood. The tree is a free seeder. Its cones are borne on 
the topmost branches, thus giving the winds an opportunity 
to carry the seeds a great distance. Like other conifers the 
seed has a wing, and in this case the wing is large in pro- 
portion to the weight of the seed. The scales of the cones 
do not all open at once, thus prolonging the period of seed- 
sowing. Natural regeneration of the Spruces, and the fre- 
quently accompanying Fir, can be fairly well relied upon 
on cut-over lands where fire does not succeed cutting, but 
where it does, the chances for it are slim indeed. The nat- 
ural seed-bed for the eastern Spruces is the decaying veg- 
etable matter, the rotting leaves, twigs, limbs, and trunks 
of trees, — the humus, — with underlying soil. Unlike most 
conifers the young trees do not take kindly to mineral soil 
at first ; and when that soil only is offered, germination is 
uncertain and the life of the young tree doubtful. It is not 
unusual to see vigorous young Spruces growing on decay- 
ing logs in the woods, or a belt of them on the ground 
where a tree has decayed and spread itself on the soil. 
Thus it will be seen that even where seed trees have es- 
caped the ravages of fire, natural reforestation is somewhat 
uncertain at best, and where fire has burned all the humus 
and killed all the seed trees, it requires no argument to 
demonstrate that a forest of like species cannot reasonably 
be expected to grow there except through planting seeds 
or setting out young trees. 

As already stated the Spruces are slow growers, and this 
is especially true of this tree in its early life. Where weeds, 
grass, or other stuff will be likely to overshadow them, 
nursery-grown plants cannot be set out until five or six 
years old, and this will make such propagation expensive. 
Undoubtedly the best way to reforest burned-over land 
with young Spruce is to plant seeds, and where no fire has 
occurred and seed trees are not numerous, to supplement 
the work of the latter by planting. Young Red Spruce 
plants are being grown in some forest nurseries, but their 



182 THE SPRUCES 

slow growth does not indicate success. If plants are to be 
grown in a nursery, humus from the woods would best be 
compounded with the soil of the seed-bed. The young plants 
should be screened from the sun the same as other conifers, 
and substantially the same treatment be given them. As 
they are light-demanding, close planting in the forest will 
cause their lower limbs to die and the trees will become 
suitable for commercial purposes. The cones should be 
gathered and treated like those of the White Pine. 

White Spruce : Plcea canadensis 

The White Spruce ranges along the northern border of 
the United States from Idaho to Maine, but not farther 
south than South Dakota, southern Minnesota, Wisconsin, 
northern New York, southern Maine, and northern New 
Hampshire and Vermont, growing along the shore much 
farther south than in the interior, except on the Alleghany 
Mountains, where it reaches northern Virginia. Its extended 
area in Canada has given it its botanical name canaden- 
sis, which is entirely appropriate. It constitutes the great 
bulk of the forests of Alaska and northern Canada, reach- 
ing far into the Frigid Zone, where it grows on the tun- 
dras that are never free from frost. It is essentially a cold- 
climate tree and a southern extension of its rano;e need never 
be expected. Its best development in the eastern United 
States is in northern New England, but it seldom attains 
a great size. Professor Sargent,^ in speaking of it east of 
the Rocky Mountains, says : " Toward the southeastern 
limits of its range rarely more than sixty to seventy feet 
tall, with a trunk not more than two feet in diameter." It 
averages somewhat larger in Idaho. It is a slow grower, 
but long-lived. Its general characteristics of growth in the 
Eastern States and the uses to which the wood is put are 
so like those of the Red Spruce that a detailed description 
of it need not be given, except to say that its heartwood 
^ Manual of the Trees of North America, page 42. 



ENGELMANN SPRUCE 183 

is light, not strong, light yellow in color, and with scarcely 
distinguishable sapwood. In a few years it must produce a 
large portion of the wood cut for pulp in Canada. The tree 
can be easily recognized by the rank, and, to some, very 
disagreeable odor of its leaves. There is little need of arti- 
ficial propagation if reasonable care be taken to keep out 
fire and leave enough trees for seed. 

Engelmann Spruce : Picea engelmanni 

Such lumber as is cut from this tree and shipped East is 
known in the trade as " Rocky Mountain Spruce." It dif- 
fers botanically from the eastern Spruces and grows much 
larger, yet the lumber cut from it is very much like that in 
character and can be used for substantially the same pur- 
poses and can be produced in much larger dimensions. Its 
natural range south of the Canadian line is along the Rocky 
Mountains and the Cascade Range southward to northern 
Arizona and New Mexico, at elevations from 5000 to 10,000 
feet above the ocean. On the lower altitudes it frequently 
grows to one hundred and twenty feet high and three 
feet in diameter, but on high ones it is little better than 
a shrub. This produces great variation in the character and 
quality of the lumber cut from it. 

Grown in the open, it forms a broad-based, conical crown, 
with long, drooping, lower limbs produced in regular whoi-ls 
spreading far out, and some even resting on the ground. If 
in a dense stand, it sends up a straight, somewhat tapering, 
clean stem, with a very short, contracted crown of small 
branches. It is a slow growing, long-lived tree, reaching 
an age of five hundred years. 

The wood is soft, light, compact, but not strong, close- 
and straight-grained, pale yellow in color, tinged with red 
verging to reddish brown, with thick sapwood hardly dis- 
tinguishable from heartwood, and with little difference 
between spring and summer wood. Its medullary rays are 
more conspicuous than in any other Spruce. It is used for 



184 THE SPRUCES 

lumber for all general purposes of construction. No inform- 
ation can be obtained concerning its fitness for pulp, yet 
there is little doubt but that it is suitable, as all Spruces 
thus far experimented with are. Its bark is quite rich in 
tannin, but as the bark does not exceed three fourths of an 
inch in thickness on adult trees, the yield will necessarily 
be light. This thinness of its bark rendei's the tree an easy 
prey to forest fires, which are too frequently permitted to 
spread over large areas of the Rocky Mountain and Pacific 
regions where covered with a dense growth of splendid 
trees. Whether the fires occur as " ground " or " crown," 
— the latter where it leaps from the top of one tree to 
another with the speed of a race-horse, consuming every 
leaf and twig, — the trees are killed outright and the 
ground left naked, to be covered by a growth of chapar- 
ral, or, in rare cases, by trees of other species. 

The cones are produced in great abundance, but are con- 
fined almost entirely to tlie topmost branches of the tree. 
They open and release the seeds early in October. The 
seeds are small, with a large wing, and can be carried a 
great distance by the winds. No doubt natural regeneration 
would be ample if fires could be kept out and care taken 
to leave a sufficient number of seed trees. Artificial pro- 
pagation, beyond planting seeds where the tree flourishes 
best, should not be undertaken except in an experimental 
way. However, it is one of the few western conifers that 
shows something of a readiness to grow elsewhere than in 
its natural home. Specimens of Engelmann Spruce are 
growing in the Eastern States and in Europe, giving some 
promise of success, but no information can be obtained of 
any attempt to grow it for other than ornamental purposes 
except in Eui'ope, and there the planting of it in the forest 
has been so recent that nothing definite can be determined. 
It is with this tree as with nearly all the' Rocky Mountain 
and Pacific Slope trees: Natui-e has provided for their 
abundant continuance, and, if permitted, she will accom- 
plish it. The situation there is not like that east of the 



NORWAY SPRUCE 185 

Mississippi River. In the high altitudes and on the steep 
declivities, planting trees will not be likely to jjrove success- 
ful because of the comparatively slight rainfall, and the only 
aid that can be given, aside from keeping out the fires and 
leaving sufficient trees for seed, will be planting seeds where 
the trees are to grow. In the East nearly all the seed trees 
are gone, hence reforestation cannot there take place nat- 
urally, but the abundant rains make transplanting in the 
East not only possible but practicable, as experiment shows. 
There is no invariable rule to fit all cases. Our work must 
conform to surrounding conditions. 

Norway Spruce : Picea excelsa 

Here is a foreigner which will undoubtedly find a per- 
manent home with us and prove a valuable addition to the 
list of important timber trees of our country. A strong, 
hardy, and rapidly growing tree in its native home in cen- 
tral and northern Europe, Norway Spruce has thus far 
shown its ability to accept the conditions it must meet over 
a large portion of our country. Although it has been 
planted here mainly as an ornamental tree and for a wind- 
break, its vigor, rapidity of growth, and freedom from dis- 
ease give proof that it will do well as a forest tree. In its 
European home it will, if allowed, reach a height of one 
hundred feet with a diameter of three feet, and occasionally 
it exceeds these dimensions ; but it is seldom permitted to 
grow beyond two feet in diameter, because compound in- 
terest on the money invested in the plantation will, after 
that period, increase more rapidly than the increased value 
through growth of wood can bring to its owner. 

It is known to thrive throughout the area bounded on 
the north by a line drawn from southern Maine through 
central New York westward to the Mississippi River, 
thence south to central Kansas, and from there eastward 
through Washington, D. C, to the Atlantic Ocean. It 
grows quite well south of the area named, but coming from 



186 THE SPRUCES 

a colder climate it would be best to plant it in elevated 
situations to insure success. Fine specimens, however, may 
be seen growing in Santa Cruz, California. Throughout 
the territory named, it grows as rapidly on fairly fertile 
soil as White Pine, but is not equal to that tree in adapt- 
ing itself to a great variety of soils and surroundings. In 
soils largely composed of vegetable matter, as are those of 
some of the Western States, it makes a vigorous growth at 
first, but in a few years shows signs of decay, possibly suf- 
fering for want of certain mineral food or, more likely, 
from over-stimulation. Neither can it endure a very dry or 
very sterile soil. In its native home in Europe it is found 
growing in the valleys and well up the mountain-sides 
towards the snow line, but diminishing in size and vigor as 
it ascends. While its ripened wood is of ironclad hardi- 
ness, it occasionally gets caught in this country by late 
spring frosts, as it starts to grow early and the new shoots 
are tender. 

Like all the Spruces, its crown takes on a pyramidal form, 
though not so acutely as some of our native Spruces. If 
grown in the open, it throws out a broad base at the ground, 
yet its lines will converge to a sharp apex at the top, which 
is surmounted by a naked leader of the present year's 
growth. It is much given to developing limbs between the 
annual whorls. When crowded, its lower limbs die quickly 
and drop off, as it is light-demanding, but if allowed to 
become large they will adhere and cause knotty lumber; 
hence crowding should begin early and be kept up until 
the tree attains its height growth. When grown in the 
forest, it maintains the conical form of crown, but much 
shortened. If properly crowded in early life, it may de- 
velop a clean stem for one half or more of its height, but, 
like our native Spruces, some of the limbs next below the 
live ones will persist in adhering. The stem is straight and 
of slight and even taper, and there are seldom any large 
or specialized limbs. 

The wood is close and straight-grained and strong, but 



NORWAY SPRUCE 187 

not durable when exposed to the soil. The heartwood is 
yellowish white, varying somewhat in color with locality, 
with thin and quite white sapwood. There is little differ- 
ence in color or hardness between spring and summer 
growth. Tlie medullary rays are small and inconspicuous. 
It is of medium hardness but rather easily worked. In gen- 
eral characteristics the wood closely resembles that of our 
native Red Spruce, and can be used for the same purposes. 
In Europe it is largely devoted to general construction, 
where not exposed to the weather, and for interior finish. 
It is not as heavy or as durable as the European Larch, 
which is there largely used for outdoor work. The bark is 
used in tanneries in Europe, though not heavily charged 
with tannin. 

Norway Spruce is a moderate but frequent seed-bearer, 
the cones ripening the first year. The percentage of fer- 
tility in the seeds is not very high, but their abundance 
compensates for that. It may be grown by planting seeds, 
but growing plants in a nursery is largely followed in 
Europe. There is little difficulty in growing a supply of 
plants and the treatment in the nursery beds should be the 
same as for White Pine, and, like that, it is best to trans- 
plant them in the nursery once before setting them out in 
the forest, as they are rather slow growers for the first 
four or five years. After that, they grow vigorously, and 
in suitable soils as rapidly as White Pine. It will, no 
doubt, prove in some situations a useful companion for 
that tree, being one of the very few species which can be 
recommended or even tolerated for that purpose. They 
can be set out in alternate rows or alternately in each row. 
If no mishap comes to the Pines, the Spruces can all be 
removed as thinning progresses; but if anything happens 
to the Pines, then there will be a stand of Spruce ; or they 
may be allowed to grow together until mature, if nothing 
happens to either. It is more valuable for pulp than Pine ; 
in fact, is as useful for that purpose as our native Spruces, 
and it would Jbring a greater revenue from thinning than 



188 THE SPRUCES 

if the stand were all Pine. It is the easiest of all the timber 
conifers to transplant, but the same care should be taken 
as with other evergreens to shield the roots from becoming 
dry. Aside from its value as a timber tree, it would, no 
doubt, be profitable to grow it as a Christmas tree. The 
first thinnings of the plantation would certainly be mar- 
ketable for that purpose. It is not as liable to attacks by 
insects or diseases of any kind as our native evergreens, 
but as it starts early in the spring late frosts may destroy 
the leader; when that occurs it at once sets out to grow a 
new one by developing dormant buds which form between 
the whorls of each year's growth, or one or more limbs 
may attempt to assume that dignified position. In any event, 
all but one of the volunteer leaders should be promptly 
cut back. If that is not done, two or more stems will be 
the result. Gathering seeds and propagation should be 
along the same lines as for White Pine. Being rather 
more intolerant of shade than that tree, they need not be 
set so close in the forest. 



THE FIRS 

Theke are nine species of Fir in the United States, two 
of them east of the foothills of the Rocky Mountains, while 
the others belong mainly to the Pacific Slope. A distin- 
guishing feature of the Firs is their dense, sharply coni- 
cal crowns, composed of comparatively small limbs which 
spring out from the stem in whorls, and these develop 
branches on each side of the limb somewhat like vanes on 
the central quill of a feather. Another peculiarity is that 
the cones are erect on the branches, wherein they differ 
from the Pines and Spruces. The stem of the Fir is a true 
taper from the ground to the very tip of the leader, unless 
some accident has robbed that feature of its supremacy, in 
which case two or more limbs will attempt the ascendabcy, 
each, however, assuming the same tapering form that the 
original one adopted. All are light-demanding, and unless 
crowded will retain their limbs. 

The Eastern Firs 

The common name given to the two Eastern Firs is 
" Balsam," although they are loaded down with many 
others, among which " She " is a prefix, an absurdity which 
is as far from the truth as it is from good taste, as each 
tree bears both staminate and pistillate flowers. Botani- 
cally one is called Abies fraseri and the other Abies bal- 
samea, and under these names they will be considered. 

Abies fraseri is confined to the Appalachian Mountains 
from southwestern Virginia to western North Carolina and 
eastern Tennessee, and at elevations above 2700 feet. It 
is not a large tree, seldom reaching seventy-five feet in 
height or a diameter of thirty inches. It is a slow grower, 
and thus far appears to be short-lived in cultivation, but 



190 THE FIRS 

the attempt has been made for ornamental purposes only, 
and where the tree has been entirely in the open. When 
planted in the forest, with a suitable forest floor, it will 
doubtless prove as vigorous as in a virgin forest, but there 
is little to justify any effort at artificial cultivation, for, by 
proper treatment, natural reproduction can be maintained 
where desired. 

The wood is light, soft, coarse-grained, and weak. The 
heartwood is pale brown and the sapwood nearly white. It 
is used for general construction, box boards, and pulp. 

Abies balsamea. This is the common " Balsam " of the 
Northern States, and is confined to the states bordering on 
the Great Lakes, to West Virginia, Virginia, Maryland, 
Pennsylvania, New York, and New England. It spreads 
over nearly all of Canada east of the Kocky Mountains, 
except on the plains between Winnipeg and Calgary. It 
closely resembles the Fraser Fir except that it prefers 
moist bottom lands, and even swamps. The tree seldom 
reaches a height of sixty feet or a diameter of thirty inches. 
It is a slow grower at best, and especially so in swamps, 
where it may not increase an inch in diameter in twenty- 
five years. It may be recognized by its " blisters," which 
contain a clear thin pitch, commercially known as " Canada 
Balsam." These blisters are arranged horizontally around 
the tree in irregular sections and just beneath the smooth 
surface in the outer bark of young and middle-aged trees, 
and on limbs of old ones, and when pricked or cut open 
the limpid pitch flows out. The Indians called the tree 
"Blisters." 

The wood is soft, light, weak, coarse-grained, and decays 
quickly when exposed. It is used for box boards, coarse 
lumber, and pulp. The heartwood is pale brown, the 
sapwood lighter colored, and it is seriously alleged that it 
is sometimes mingled with Spruce and sold as such. 

Like the other Eastern species, it is short-lived when 
planted in the open. When planted as an ornamental tree, 
it frequently fails when thirty to forty years of age, yet it 



THE WESTERN FIRS 191 

is probable that planting in a close stand would make its 
artificial cultivation possible ; but there is little reason for 
undertaking it. Natural regeneration will take place if op- 
portunity is offered, and should be encouraged on ground 
where it will grow and where better species will not. 

The Western Firs 

The "Western Firs ^ indigenous to the United States are 
mainly confined to the Olympic, Coast, and Cascade ranges 
of mountains in Washington and Oregon and the Sierra 
Nevada in northern California, although they extend as 
far east along our northern border as the western slope of 
the Continental Divide in Montana. Of the seven species 
found there, six are of sufficient economic importance as 
timber trees to warrant consideration, although nothing 
based upon experiment or experience can be said concern- 
ing their propagation. It cannot be learned that anything 
has been done in that line beyond what nurserymen have 
attempted in order to determine their fitness for orna- 
mental purposes, the results of which, it must be confessed, 
have been anything but favorable for their propagation 
east of their natural range. Late reports show that some 
of them are thriving in Europe and indications are that 
they will do well there as forest trees. Therefore all that 
can be said here intelligently respecting them must relate 
to their locality, general characteristics, and value as tim- 
ber trees. Probably not until a much greater exhaustion 
of all the Pacific Slope and Rocky Mountain conifers takes 
place will anything be done towards propagating or even 
protecting these valuable species of trees. 

^ Until recently little has been known in the Eastern States concerning 
the Firs of the Pacific Slope. This lack of knowledge has now been sup- 
plied by Mr. George B. Sudworth, dendrologist of the United States Forest 
Service, in a publication entitled Forest Trees of the Pacific Slope, issued 
October 1, 1908, and I am largely indebted to him for what is here said 
concerning the Firs of that region, — to which I have added my own ob- 
servations when studying the western trees. The criticisms of manufacturers 
and dealers are wholly mine. 



192 THE FIRS 

The important Western Firs are Grand Fir (^Ahies 
grandis), White Fir (^Ables concolor'), Amabilis Fir (^Ahies 
amabilis}, Noble Fir (^Ables nohilis)^ and Red Fir (^Ahies 
magnijica. The others are not worthy of consideration. 
(The so-called Douglas Fir, an important tree, is not really 
a Fir.) 

Grand Fir : Abies grandis 

This tree is generally called White Fir, for the reason 
that its smooth bark is conspicuously white. As there is 
another species to which that name is commonly and more 
appropriately applied, — Abies concolor, — it is proposed 
by Mr. Sudworth to discard the appellation " white " and 
adopt that of " grand " in its place, making it Grand Fir. 
This is certainly a more correct designation, for it elimin- 
ates the elements of confusion and error and also gives a 
name suggestive of its character. 

Its natural range is throughout a large portion of Wash- 
ington, Oregon, and northern California, where it may be 
found along alluvial stream-beds, on the slopes of the 
mountains from near the coast up to an elevation of 7000 
feet above the sea. It is also indigenous to Idaho and Mon- 
tana eastwardly to the western slope of the Continental 
Divide. It grows to a height of two hundred and seventy- 
five feet, with a diameter of four feet on bottom lands, and 
on elevated situations from eighty to one hundred and 
twenty-five feet high and from eighteen to thirty inches in 
diameter. The stem is straight, gradually tapering, and 
when in dense stands clean of limb for fully one half of 
the total height of the tree. It is light-demanding, and if 
grown in the open retains its limbs from the ground up. 
It is a fairly good seeder, and as the seeds are not heavy 
and the wing is large, they can be blown a long distance. 

The wood is light, soft, moderately coarse-grained, and 
sti-aight, not durable when exposed, not strong, yet firm 
enough to be useful for interior finish, box boards, and 
many like purposes. In color the heartwood varies from 



WHITE FIR 193 

pale yellowish brown to pale brown, with thin lighter- 
colored sapwood. It is not known whether it is suitable for 
pulp, but it is reasonable to suppose that it is. Owing to 
a general prejudice against fir lumber, — a prejudice which 
naturally comes from its association with Sugar Pine and 
Western Yellow Pine, — it is not extensively cut, but will 
undoubtedly be favorably accepted in due time. 

White Fir : Abies concolor 

No objection can be seriously urged against the name 
commonly applied to this tree, for the color of its wood 
fairly justifies it, but notwithstanding the fitness of this 
name, ten others have been added, among which are Bast- 
ard Pine and Black Gum. Its range is from Oregon to 
southern California, northern Arizona and New Mexico, 
to Colorado and Utah. It grows to its largest size in the 
coast region. It may occasionally be found there two hun- 
dred feet high with a diameter of six feet ; more commonly 
eighty to one hundred feet high and twenty to thirty inches 
in diameter. The stem is straight and tapers gradually. 
Mature trees are covered for some distance above the ground 
with rough bark from four to six inches thick and deeply 
furrowed. It is a rapid grower for the first fifty to one hun- 
dred years ; after that, its growth is slow until it reaches 
its end, which is at about three hundred years. A tree sixty 
inches in diameter showed three hundred and seven annual 
rings. While it requires less moisture in the soil than the 
other Firs, it still rejoices in a humid atmosphere. It is 
moderate in its demand for light at all periods of its growth. 
Only Alpine Fir and Engelmaun Spruce are less so among 
associated species. 

The wood is very light, soft, coarse-grained, not strong, 
but sufficiently so to be useful for ordinary purposes ; is 
easily worked, but is not durable. It is nearly white in color, 
being slightly tinged with very light brown, and is odor- 
less, which latter feature makes it valuable for packing- 



194 THE FIRS 

cases, especially for butter. It is not extensively manufac- 
tured at present. 

It is a fairly good seeder, with a large wing attached to 
the seed, and the jsercentage of germination is good. It is 
not exacting as to a seed-bed, and this, with its endurance 
of shade, enables it to wage an aggressive and successful 
contest for reproduction among its associates. 

Amabilis Fir : Abies amahilis 

Just why " Lovely Fir," by which name this tree is 
largely and significantly known, could not have been al- 
lowed to remain instead of " Amabilis," both meaning sub- 
stantially the same, is hard to understand. It is sometimes 
called White Fir, which is not truthfully suggestive ; but 
"Amabilis" is adopted by authorities and hence must be 
accepted. Its range is confined mainly to the Cascade Moun- 
tains of Washington and Oregon, where it is found at an 
elevation of one thousand to six thousand feet above tide. 
Its stem is slender and straight and, in favorable locations, 
with a diameter of five to six feet and a height of two hun- 
dred feet ; but a diameter of eighteen to thirty inches and a 
height of seventy-five feet are far more common than any 
near approach to the dimensions first named. It is moder- 
ately light-demanding, and may be found clear of limbs for 
fifty to eighty feet in close stands. In the open it retains 
its limbs from the ground up. It is a slow grower. Trees 
from sixteen to twenty-four inches in diameter are from 
one hundred and seventy-five to two hundred and thirty 
years old. 

The wood is moderately soft, but considerably harder 
than that of some of the Firs, close-grained, not strong or 
durable when exposed ; heartwood light brown, with thin, 
lighter colored sapwood. It can be used for interior finish 
and similar purposes, but at present it is seldom cut for 
lumber, because better wood can be secured more easily. 

It is a prolific seeder, and it would seem to be capable 



NOBLE FIR 195 

of perpetuating itself if given a chance, but it must be re- 
membered that it is a slow grower and other trees may be 
profitably grown in its stead ; this is undoubtedly true, for 
the area in which it is found produces faster growing ones 
and those yielding far better lumber. Still, it would be a 
misfortune to have this beautiful tree become extinct. 

Noble Fir : Abies nobilis 

Here is another unfortunate confusion of names. Some 
Oregon lumbermen, finding a prejudice existing against 
lumber cut from any Fir, concluded, a score or more years 
ago, to conceal the true character of this tree and call the 
Noble Fir a Larch. The excuse for this was that if given 
its proper name, no one would purchase it, but if it were 
thought to be something else, there would be no hesitation, 
nor would the purchaser be wronged, for the lumber cut 
from this tree was as good as that cut from the Larch. If 
this had been true, such a course would have been open to 
less criticism than it now deserves, as the wrong to the 
purchaser would have been eliminated ; but it was not true, 
for the Larch has some valuable qualities which the Noble 
Fir does not possess, among which are hardness and dur- 
ability when exposed to the ground. Then others, knowing 
that Red Fir ranked high in quality among the Firs, con- 
cluded, for reasons of their own, to call this one Red Fir 
too. This confusion should cease. No suspicion of deception 
should be attached to manufacturer or dealer. The red man 
called the tree " Tuck Tuck." 

The name " Noble Fir " is very appropriate and significant 
and should be adhered to, for there are few trees that can 
equal it in grandeur and nobleness of form and appearance. 
Its range is limited mainly to Oregon, Washington, and 
northern California. It may be considered a moisture-loving 
tree, both as to soil and atmosphere, and should not be 
expected to thrive outside of its natural habitat or where 
climatic conditions are unlike those it enjoys at home. At 



196 THE FIRS 

its best it towers one hundred and fifty to two hundred and 
fifty feet with a stem six to seven feet in diameter, with 
slight taper, and clean of limb for one hundred feet or more. 
It is light-demanding, and if not grown in a dense stand 
will be found well clothed with limbs from near the ground 
up ; the seedlings do not thrive in the shade. 

The wood is among the heaviest of the Firs, only the Red 
Fir exceeding it ; a seasoned cubic foot weighs twenty-eight 
pounds, while the Red Fir weighs twenty-nine pounds, and 
our eastern White Fir only twenty-two pounds. It is mod- 
erately hard and firm, strong, elastic, medium fine-grained, 
heartwood light brown, irregularly marked with reddish 
brown areas, — which add to its beauty for interior finish, 
— with thick and somewhat darker sapwood, — the latter 
feature unusual for a conifer. It is easily worked and should 
come into more general use, as it is superior in quality and 
quite different from any other Fir, and for some purposes 
equal to more popular coniferous woods. 

It is a good seeder, but the percentage of germination is 
unfortunately low, and the seeds are greedily devoured by 
birds and squirrels, the Douglas squirrel being the greatest 
offender. The cones are large for a Fir, being from six to 
seven inches in length, and unlike those of any other species. 
Whoever has seen them standing upright on the topmost 
limbs of these giants of the woods, or has had the pleasure 
of close inspection, will never forget them. In their con- 
spicuousness they vie with the unique cones of the Sugar 
Pine. Reproduction should be at once undertaken in some 
form, but just what method would be best experiment only 
can determine. It is true that the tree is comparatively a 
slow grower, and a long time must elapse before merchant- 
able trees can be grown, but for all that, our obligations 
to posterity require us to do our duty and transmit such 
species as prove valuable in our day. The great giants will 
soon be gone, but we should leave it possible for others to 
grow. 



RED FIR 197 

Eed Fir : Abies magnifica 

The name given this tree is eminently appropriate because 
of the deep brown-red of its bark and the tinge of red in 
its wood, while the botanical appellation magnifica, mag- 
nificent, is well bestowed. The author first saw the tree 
on the southern slope of Mount Shasta, and well remembers 
the towering, stately form, with its red stem, and can well 
understand why it is thought magnificent. There is another 
variety of this tree known as Abies magnifica shastensisy 
but the two are so nearly identical in every economic re- 
spect that a separate description would be superfluous. The 
range of the Red Fir is on mountain slopes and ridges, at 
an elevation running from four thousand to eight thousand 
feet above the sea, from southern Oregon and northern 
California southward on the Sierras. 

It has been found reaching a height of one hundred and 
seventy -five to two hundred feet, with a stem seven or eight 
feet in diameter, and fully one half its length clean of 
limbs, but such specimens are rare. When growing in favor- 
able locations and in dense stands, it forms a slightly taper- 
ing stem free of branches for seventy-five or eighty feet, 
but generally running from twenty-four to thirty-six inches 
in diameter. It is smallest on high elevations. It is slow- 
growing and long-lived, 'frequently reaching an age of three 
hundred and seventy-five years. When growing in the open, 
it retains its limbs from near the ground up. The bark in 
old trees is from two to three inches thick and deeply fur- 
rowed. 

The wood is the heaviest of any of the Firs. It is soft, not 
strong, comparatively durable, light brown tinged with red, 
with thick and somewhat darker sapwood. It is firm and 
can be easily worked, but thus far has been mainly used for 
fuel, packing-boxes, and cheap construction. There is no 
apparent reason why it may not be far more generally used 
than now. 



198 THE FIRS 

It produces seed abundantly. Its cones are conspicuously 
large, and as on all other Firs stand upright on the limbs and 
mature the first year. It cannot be learned that any effort 
has been made looking to reproduction, and there is not 
likely to be any until the more popular species of timber 
trees are exhausted. When that time arrives, it will dawn 
upon those who must have lumber that the Firs here de- 
scribed have a real economic value and are worth preserva- 
tion. It will be the same as it is in the Eastern States with 
the Spruces, Hemlocks, the Red Oak class, and other species 
which at one time were deemed worthless, and were so in 
comparison with White Pine and the White Oak class, but 
which are now bringing prices equal to if not greater than 
those that the latter brought when they were the most 
rapidly exploited. 



DOUGLAS FIR: DOUGLAS SPRUCE: 

Pseudotsuga taxifolia 

This is one of the most important timber trees west of 
the great Continental Divide. Only the Tideland Spruce, 
the Big Tree, and the Redwood exceed it in size, and none 
but the Western Yellow Pine (^Pinus ponderosa) can sup- 
ply so great an amount of first-class merchantable lumber. 
While the tree is loaded with nearly a dozen local names, 
the lumber trade has added to the confusion by giving sev- 
eral different names to the lumber cut from it. One may pur- 
chase in market Douglas Fir, Red Fir, Yellow Fir, Douglas 
Spruce, Yellow Spruce, and Oregon Pine, and yet all may 
be cut from the same identical tree. The author well re- 
members how he was corrected in a Los Angeles planing- 
mill when he called some lumber which a workman was put- 
ting into a door Douglas Spruce, and was promptly told it 
was Oregon Pine — and the man really thought it was Pine. 
It is not a Spruce, nor is it a Fir or a Pine, but it largely 
partakes of the characteristics of a Hemlock, hence its bot- 
anical name, Pseudotsuga^ which means False Hemlock. 
Professor C. S. Sargent declares " Pseudotsuga is a barbar- 
ous name," but for all that, it indicates its true character. 

Its natural range in the United States is from the Cana- 
dian line south, through most of the mountain ranges, to 
nearly, if not quite, the Mexican border, and from the east- 
ern base of the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific Ocean, but 
it is not found on the mountains of the arid region of the 
Great Basin. Its best development is along the coast region 
of Washington and Oregon near the level of the sea, and 
on the lower western slopes of the Cascade Range. It as- 
cends these and the Sierra Nevada of California up to five 
thousand, and in some places up to six thousand or more 
feet above the ocean. In regions where it thrives best, trees 



200 DOUGLAS FIR 

may be found two hundred and fifty and, occasionally, three 
hundred feet in height, with a diameter ranging from six 
to twelve feet, and it is claimed up to fifteen feet, yet in high 
and exposed situations it may not reach ten feet in height. 
The average of trees chosen for lumber is far below the 
great dimensions named, but seldom is a tree cut of smaller 
diameter than two feet. It is a strong, vigorous grower 
under favorable conditions, and generally dominant, sup- 
pressing all other trees which may attempt to become near 
neighbors. Large areas may be seen where it is in nearly 
pure stands and where a large number may be found to the 
acre. One standing in a grove of mature Douglas Fir in its 
best development may find his range of vision limited to 
a very small area by the naked stems of the trees. Aside 
from the Redwood, no other tree has been known to produce 
so great a yield to the acre. Where standing in a vigorous 
forest, it has a straight, slightly tapering stem, wliich may 
frequently be seen clean of limbs for two thirds of the 
tree's height ; but it is not unusual for it to have small and 
inconsequential limbs along its stem towards the top. 

It is quite variable in character through climatic and 
local conditions. Trees growing on high elevations, and es- 
pecially on the eastern slopes of the Cascade and Sierra 
Nevada ranges and the Rocky Mountains, are inferior to 
those along the western slope of the Cascade and Sierra 
Nevada or on the Coast Range. They are not only smaller, 
but the lumber cut from them is not of as good a quality. 

In some respects the wood resembles that of the Larches 
and some of the softer Yellow Pines, but with less resin 
than the latter. It is undoubtedly the strongest of the soft- 
wood conifers ; and, weight for weight, is nearly as strong 
as that of the Oaks. The heartwood ranges in color from 
red to yellow, with nearly white sapwood, varying in thick- 
ness. It is claimed that the red and yellow are different 
species or, at all events, different varieties. This is undoubt- 
edly an error. It is possible that the difference in color may 
arise from age, rapidity of growth, or conditions of soil and 




DOUGLAS FIR 

Some of the trees shown are more than seyen feet in diameter. "Western 
Washington. — Copyrighted, 1902, by Kiser Photo. Co., Portland, Oregon. 



DOUGLAS FIR 201 

location ; but none of these reasons can prevail when dif- 
ferent colors are produced in the same tree, which is not 
uncommon. Evidently the causes which produce the dis- 
coloration are not understood. As a rule, the wood is hard 
and somewhat difficult to work, and, again, it is found soft 
and adapted to almost any use, and no insignificant com- 
petitor to Western White Pine. It is not durable when ex- 
posed to the soil, but for want of wood which is more durable 
it is lai'gely used for railroad ties and telegraph poles. The 
tendency of large sticks to check in seasoning operates some- 
what against its use in heavy structural work, but when 
cut into boards and plank, it seasons without checking, and 
is well fitted for interior finish as well as for general pur- 
poses. It serves well for masts of ships, booms for derricks, 
and other like uses where large, long, stiff, strong, and 
straight timber is required. 

The bark is thin when the tree is less than about twelve 
inches in diameter, which makes it at this stage very sus- 
ceptible to injury from forest fires ; but on mature trees the 
bark at the base may reach a tliickness of twelve or even 
fourteen inches, and more on very old trees, and as it does 
not scale off, it is then very rough with deep wide furrows. 
The character of the bark varies much with the humidity 
of the region. Trees in dry and exposed situations have 
rougher bark than in moist, damp forests. 

If reasonable care should be taken, natural reproduction 
would go far towards perpetuating the supply, especially 
in western Oregon and Washington. But when fires are per- 
mitted to run on cut-over lands, or second growth is cut 
down on lands unfitted for cultivation, simply to obtain 
scant pasture for live stock, little need be expected in the 
line of conservation until exhaustion teaches a sorrowful 
lesson. The tree is a rapid grower for the first one hundred 
to one hundred and fifty years of its life, when the annual 
rings begin to lessen in thickness, and at the age of three 
hundred years they are not more than half as thick. This 
produces both coarse- and fine-grained wood in the same tree. 



202 DOUGLAS FIR 

It is a prolific seeder, generally producing seed each year, 
with a high rate of fertility. The cones ripen early in Au- 
gust, and by September they open and the seeds are scat- 
tered by the winds. The seeds are about the size of White 
Pine with a wing of the same dimensions. They are largely 
eaten by birds and squirrels, but the great number pro- 
duce leaves enough for abundant reproduction. Experi- 
ments in eastern nurseries show that the production of 
young plants is not at all difficult. The tree grows quite 
rapidly in the East at first, but almost invariably fails as 
age creeps on. Experience in attempts to grow it east of 
the Mississippi River has not been encouraging, although 
it is said to do well in Europe. It is possible that seed 
gathered from trees growing on the eastern slopes of the 
Rocky Mountains may produce trees that will endure the 
climatic conditions which must be met in the East. It is 
reported that it does very well in Iowa and Minnesota. In 
western North Carolina it made in ten years less than half 
the height of White Pine of the same age and planted by 
its side. Whether it can be best grown by planting seeds 
where the trees are to stand, or whether trees would best 
be grown in a nursery must be determined by experiment, 
but it is very probable that seed planting will serve as well, 
and it would certainly be much less expensive. Experiments 
in that line should certainly be made by those who may 
live within the bounds of its natural range. 



THE HEMLOCKS 

There are three species o£ Hemlocks indigenous to the 
United States, which have had, and, to a certain extent, 
still have, an economic value as timber trees. Two of them 
— known as Eastern Hemlock — are scattered over a large 
portion of the country east of the Mississippi River, and 
the home of the other is west of the Continental Divide, 
where it is confined mainly to the states of Washington, 
Oregon, and California. The technical appellation for the 
species is Tsuga^ which is the Japanese name for Hemlock ; 
and just why such a strange and barbarous word from a 
far-away country should have been selected for a tree so 
widely spread over our continent is hard to determine. The 
Indian name, Oh-neh-tah (" Greens on the Stick "), is no 
less civilized and quite as euphonious ; but the foreign 
technical monstrosity has " come to stay." 

In general characteristics the Hemlocks much resemble 
the Spruces, taking on a pyramidal form without special- 
ized branches, with short leaves and pendant but small 
cones. Their limbs do not, however, spring out from the 
stem in whorls, as do most of the conifers, but grow at 
irregular intervals from each other. Their leaves remain 
on the branches from three to six or seven years. All have 
straight, slightly tapering stems which are covered with 
rough, hard, and somewhat rigid bark of a reddish cinna- 
mon color when broken, and which contains much tannin. 
This last feature has made the tree of much more commer- 
cial importance in the East than it would have been for its 
lumber alone, and large quantities were cut there in former 
days for the bark only, the wood being left to rot on the 
ground or be consumed in forest fires, which were rather 
encouraged than otherwise. No other tree of moment has 
bark so highly charged with tannin, not even the Chestnut 



204 THE HEMLOCKS 

Oak (^Quercus prinus)^ and the Pacific Coast species con- 
tains more than the Eastern ones do. 



Eastern Hemlock 

The two Eastern species are respectively named " Hem- 
lock" (^Tsuga canadensis) and "Carolina Hemlock" 
CTsuga caroUniana). In spite of the name of canadensis 
for the northern one, it is no more common in Canada than 
in the United States, nor as much so. Doubtless the states 
of Maine and Pennsylvania once possessed as much as all 
Canada, to say nothing of what grew in other states. 

There is little need of an elaborate or extended descrip- 
tion of either of the Eastern species, — they are substan- 
tially alike — or to designate the best methods of reproduction, 
for as timber trees they are practically doomed to extinc- 
tion. While the lumber produced from them is not of a 
high grade when compared with the Spruces and Pines, 
yet the growing scarcity of these has caused Hemlock to 
become better and more favorably known, and for the last 
thirty-five or forty years vast quantities of it have been 
consumed for many purposes, latterly bringing high prices 
Added to its use as a timber tree is the value of its bark, 
for tanning, and the further use for the wood for pulp, 
— it ranking next to Spruce for that purpose, — and all 
conspire to hasten the day of its departure. They are slow 
growers and the most difficult of all the coniferous timber 
trees to transplant successfully. Like all others it must be 
grown in dense stands to compel it to drop its limbs, and 
where so grown it is very sensitive to any interference by 
man. Old lumbermen well understand that fact. Even cut- 
ting down a few trees among them will cause the death of 
near neighbors. 

The wood of the Eastern Hemlocks is hard, much given 
to " wind shakes," is generally cross-grained, splits easily, 
warps when seasoning, and much of it is filled with large 
knots which are so hard as to break any but the best of 




VIRGIN STAND OF WHITE PINE AND HEMLOCK, WITH 

SECOND GROWTH OF EACH COMING ON WHERE 

ORIGINAL FOREST WAS CUT OFF 

Clearfield County, Pennsylvania. 




VIRGIN STAND OF HEMLOCK, FROM ONE HUNDRED AND FIFTY TO 

TWO HUNDRED YEARS OLD 

Tioga County, Pennsylvania. — Photographed by George Harrison. 



WESTERN HEMLOCK 205 

steel implements used in cutting and working it. Now, add 
to all this the further fact that natural reforestation can 
stand no chance whatever with seed trees gone, and that in 
nearly every situation in which it thrives better species, 
such as the Pines, will grow more rapidly and produce more 
and better lumber, and it can be readily seen that efforts 
to cultivate the tree for timber would not be advisable. As 
a timber tree it must hereafter be relegated to areas where 
it can, with a scant number of seed trees, maintain itself 
by natural reproduction, coupled with adverse surroundings. 
It is a slow grower in early life as well as in old age, and 
quite a prolific seeder. 

As an ornamental tree it has no equal among the coni- 
ferous evergreens. The late A. J. Downing, the father of 
landscape gardening in America, pronounced it the most 
picturesque and beautiful of all the evergreens in the world, 
and he was undoubtedly correct. In the open, its crown 
grows a dense cone with limbs from the ground up, its 
terminal sprays drooping gracefully and in early summer 
tipped with the new yellow leaves, which show like blos- 
soms all over the tree, the dark background of leaves of 
former years' growth furnishing a harmonious but contrast- 
ing setting. As it grows old, the lower limbs begin to die, 
although the tree is quite tolerant of shade. It has been a 
valuable tree and is to-day, but when the question of repro- 
duction is to be determined, it must give way to better spe- 
cies and those that can be much raoi-e easily and profitably 
propagated. 

Western Hemlock 

The Western species is commonly called " Hemlock," 
and its botanical designation is Tsiiga heterophylla. Its 
range is along the Canadian line from the Pacific Coast 
east to Montana and south along the Cascade Mountains 
to northern California, at elevations varying from close to 
sea level to five thousand feet above. Its best development is 
in western Washington and Oregon, where it attains a height 



206 ' THE HEMLOCKS 

of one hundred and fifty feet, with a diameter of five or 
six feet, yet such specimens are rare. It thrives best in a 
moist soil and a humid atmosphere. It is rather more light- 
demanding than its Eastern relatives and in dense stands 
will grow tall, with a slightly tapering stem clean of limbs 
for half its height. It is superior in all respects to any other 
Hemlock as a timber tree. The bark is more valuable, and 
the lumber cut from it is of such good quality that the lum- 
bermen of Washington and Oregon have little or no diffi- 
culty in mixing ten percent of it with Douglas Spruce and 
palming it off on customers and consumers for " Oregon 
Pine." The wood is fine-grained, rather light, soft, tough, 
and more durable than the Eastern species. The heartwood 
is pale yellowish brown, slightly tinged with red, with thin 
and nearly white sap wood. Except in point of strength 
the one who purchases Western Hemlock believing it to be 
"Oregon Pine" is not much wronged, for it is softer and 
moi'e easily worked than that wood ; in fact, is nearly equal 
to the Western Yellow Pine in facility and ease of work- 
ing. If the purchasing public could be induced to lay aside 
the prejudice which loads down the very name of Hem- 
lock, and to accept the lumber cut from this particular spe- 
cies, and to accept it on its merits, it would quickly come 
into general use, for it is really a valuable wood. It has few 
of the defects of its Eastern relative. 

It is a very prolific seeder and will reproduce itself if 
given anything near a fair opportunity. No other method 
need be undertaken if sufficient seed trees are left and fire 
kept out. It is not known that any attempts have been made 
to propagate it artificially, except such efforts as have been 
made by eastern nurserymen who have endeavored to grow 
it as an ornamental tree, but with poor success. It has been 
developed in the moist climate of the Pacific Coast and can- 
not endure removal, although it is stated that it thrives fairly 
well in northern Europe not far from the sea. Unfortunately 
it is a slow grower, and trees sixteen or seventeen inches in 
diameter are from three hundred to four hundred years old. 



RED CEDAR : Juniperus virginiana 

No matter what may be said of the inaccuracy in call- 
ing certain different species of trees " Cedars," that name 
is so fixed in the lumber trade and in the mind of the pub- 
lic that submission is the only alternative. The species so 
misnamed are the Junipers, Thuyas (Arborvitaes), Libo- 
cedrus, and Chamaecyparis, but in the common parlance 
they are all " Cedars." 

The Junipers are, no doubt, the most widely distributed 
species of trees on our continent and may be found in 
nearly every state of the Union. Except for posts and like 
uses, and in some sections, for fuel, only one of the eleven 
species of Junipers in the United States has any commer- 
cial value as a timber tree, and that is the one commonly 
called Red Cedar, botanically known as Juniperus vir- 
giniana. It may be found growing but little better than a 
shrub in some sections, and as a stately tree one hundred 
feet high and three or four feet in diameter in others. 
Ordinarily, where cut for lumber it does not reach more 
than fifty feet in height and twelve to fifteen inches 
through. While its size is materially affected by soil and 
location, it will persist in accepting, with a compensat- 
ing discount, almost any soil or location from a swamp to 
a rocky cliff. Its range is from Maine to Florida and west- 
ward along the Canadian line to North Dakota, and south- 
ward to Texas. Its best development is south of the Ohio 
River. Along the foothills of the Cumberland Mountains, 
in the valley of the Tennessee River, and in northern Ala- 
bama, there could once be seen vigorous stands of large 
trees, but they are now sadly thinned. It generally grows 
mixed with other species, but on the so-called " Cedar 
Barrens" of middle Tennessee it forms pure stands. 

It is an evergreen conifer and in early life, when in the 



208 RED CEDAR 

open, sends up a straight stem covered from bottom to top 
with small short branches, forming a narrow-based, slim, 
sharp cone for a crown ; but as age creeps on, its lower 
limbs die or cease to grow and the crown assumes a round 
and irregular form. It is a slow grower at all periods of 
life. One on the author's lawn has a stem three and one 
half inches in diameter, one foot above ground, outside the 
bark, and is fourteen feet high and fully twenty years of 
age. A board in his possession, showing nearly the full 
diameter of a tree, which was fourteen inches, has an aver- 
age of twenty annual rings to the inch for the first six 
inches of its growth and an average of thirty-five for the 
remainder. The tree was not less than one hundred and 
ninety years of age. It will not be safe to count on saw 
timber in less than one hundred and fifty years from the 
time of planting. 

The wood is light, soft, easily worked, close-grained, 
quite brittle, not strong, and very fragrant. The heart- 
wood is a dull red, with thin and nearly white sapwood. 
There is a plain but not prominent distinction between 
spring and summer growth both in color and hardness, as 
any one sharpening a lead pencil will have observed. The 
medullary rays are numerous, small, and hardly visible to 
the naked eye. It is largely used for posts and for sills of 
buildings and other places where great durability is de- 
sired, the sapwood, however, decaying much sooner than 
the heartwood. The heartwood is extensively used for lead 
pencils, — no other wood proving so acceptable, — interior 
finish, closets and chests to exclude moths, and for pails, 
tubs, and other household utensils. 

It is a good seeder and the seeds are widely scattered by 
birds, but germination is slow and difficult to bring about 
in the nursery, and seedlings sometimes suffer seriously 
from a fungus disease. There is considerable difficulty at- 
tending growing seedlings to an age suitable to transplant 
into the forest. Any one contemplating it to even a moder- 
ate extent should consult United States Forest Service 



RED CEDAR 209 

Circular No. 73, entitled " Red Cedar," where full and ex- 
plicit directions for gathering, caring for, and planting 
seeds will be found, together with instructions for setting 
the plants into the forest. Those who require a limited 
number will do best to obtain them from some nursery or 
secure them where natural reproduction has taken place. 
It should be remembered that drying the roots by expos- 
ure to the air is almost certain to prove fatal. 

While it is a very valuable wood, the fact should not be 
overlooked that many other species of trees will grow rap- 
idly and can be successfully planted where Red Cedar 
thrives best, and will bring returns far sooner and are less 
liable to disease. Had we the patience of the German we 
should plant the tree for future generations, just as he did 
nearly fourscore years ago, seeing that it would be needed 
for " pencil wood " in due time, and the time will come 
much sooner than he anticipated. 



WHITE CEDAR: ARBORVITiE: Thuya occi- 
dentalis 

There are two species of Arborvitae in the United States. 
One is in the East and is commonly called White Cedar 
( Thuya occidentalism, and the other belongs to the Pacific 
Slope and is generally known as " Cedar," but is sometimes 
called Red Cedar. Its botanical appellation is Tliuya pli- 
cata. Both species are resinous, aromatic, coniferous ever- 
greens, the Eastern one of moderate dimensions and the 
Western one of gigantic proportions. Neither is a true Cedar, 
but both are classed as such by the lumber trade. 

The Eastern tree is almost universally called White 
Cedar. It is not loaded down with many names. The In- 
dians called it " Oo-soo-ha-tah," — Feather Leaf, — which 
really sounds as well, or better, than "Thuya," a name 
which can be applied to other coniferous trees. It is found 
in dense stands on swampy ground bordering the banks 
of streams and shores of lakes — occasionally climbing to 
drier ground — along the northern boundary of the United 
States from Maine to the Red River of the North, and 
south to central Minnesota and Michigan, northern Illinois, 
and in the Atlantic region along the mountains to North 
Carolina and also reaching eastern Tennessee. In its north- 
ern range trees fifty to eighty feet high, and with a but- 
tressed base of four feet, were frequently found. But few 
such trees are left, yet white cedar telegraph and tele- 
phone poles may still be seen quite two feet in diameter 
and forty or fifty feet in height cut from the forests of 
northern United States or Canada. 

Its tendency is to grow tall whether in the open or in a 
dense stand. If crowded, that tendency is intensified and 
the lower limbs die and drop off, leaving a comparatively 
clean stem for a considerable height, with only small 



WHITE CEDAR 211 

branches composing the crown. When growing in the open 
borders of streams or lakes, its persistent demand for light 
causes many trees to grow crooked, bending outward in 
early life and then turning upward, thus rendering the tree 
unfit for anything, but short stuff. 

The wood is very light, a cubic foot weighing only nine- 
teen pounds when dry. It is soft, straight-grained, easily 
split, weak, brittle, moderately fine-grained, durable when 
exposed to the soil, and fragrant. The heartwood is pale 
yellowish brown, with thin and nearly white sapwood. 
There is little difference between spring and summer growth. 
It is largely used for posts of all kinds, telegraph, telephone, 
trolley and electric-light poles, railroad ties, hop poles, 
shingles, boats, and sills for buildings. Notwithstanding 
that the wood is very durable, many live trees above nine 
or ten inches in diameter will be found hollow for a few 
feet above the ground. This decay appears to cease after 
the tree is cut. 

It is a prolific seeder and natural reproduction will take 
place fairly well, if permitted. It can be readily grown in 
the nursery, and its shallow, fibrous root system renders it 
an easy tree to transplant. It is a slow grower, but as it 
thrives best where more rapidly growing trees do not, and 
as it is almost indispensable for certain purposes, its propa- 
gation should be undertaken where the location is suitable 
and where more valuable species will not grow equally as 
well. While it will grow on comparatively dry ground, it 
does not thrive as well there as in its natural soil. 

The seeds mature in one year and should be gathered 
from the 1st to the 15th of September. They are very small 
— running from one hundred and fifty thousand to one hun- 
dred and seventy-five thousand to the pound — and almost 
entirely surrounded with a film-like wing, and are readily 
blown a great distance. The treatment of seeds, propagation 
in the nursery, — transplants are preferable, — and subse- 
quent removal to the forest should be the same as for 
White Pine except that they should be set closer in the 



212 WHITE CEDAR 

forest than is advisable for that tree : from four to five 
feet apart would be about right in most situations. If trans- 
plants are not sought, the seedlings may remain in the seed- 
bed for three years, as the tree is a slow grower in early as 
well as in later life. If at all encouraged, natural seeding 
will take place, and no doubt planting seeds would be suc- 
cessful. No information can be obtained of any effort to 
grow it as a forest tree, but it is largely used as an orna- 
mental tree and for wind-breaks. 

There is another tree commonly called White Cedar, but 
which is botanically known as Cham(ffcy2Mris thyoldes. It 
closely resembles the Eastern White Cedar just described, 
but grows to greater dimensions, frequently reaching a dia- 
meter of four feet above a slightly buttressed base, and a 
height of seventy-five or eighty feet. It may truthfully be 
called a coastal tree, as it is mainly found in swamps that 
are sometimes submerged for months, along the coast from 
Massachusetts Bay to the Gulf of Mexico, rarely reaching 
farther west than Mobile Bay. It is better adapted to the 
manufacture of lumber than the Eastern Arborvitae, as the 
stem is more cylindrical and its taper much less ; but the 
lumber trade makes no distinction. The character of the 
wood and its uses are substantially the same, although there 
is a greater difference between spring and summer wood, 
and the annual rings are consequently more conspicuous 
than in the Eastern White Cedar. Whether it can be grown 
outside of its natural habitat is somewhat doubtful, as it is 
distinctively a swamp tree, yet it is possible that, like the 
Bald Cypress, it will grow in drier locations. If so its cul- 
tivation could become possible elsewhere. 



WESTERN RED CEDAR: GIANT ARBOR- 
VIT^: Thuya plicata 

This species is known in the lumber trade as Western 
Red Cedar, or just plain " Cedar " ; and, like nearly all 
the timber trees of the Pacific Slope, is a giant in compari- 
son with trees in other parts of the world, though it cannot be 
so classed among its neighbors. It is found from one hun- 
dred and fifty to two hundred feet in height, with a diame- 
ter of ten feet at the base. The stem assumes a distinctively 
conical form, and in old trees the diameter at the base may 
be nearly twice that twenty-five or thirty feet above. The 
thickness of the annual rings of nearly all trees is greater 
at the base than above at the same age, but this is strik- 
ingly so with this tree. Another peculiarity of the tree is 
the deep fluting of its stem prevalent from middle age on. 
When young, and growing in the open, the slender limbs 
shoot upward, but as age increases they gradually droop, 
and at middle height stand out nearly horizontal, with 
their ends gracefully curving upward, while the ends of 
those lower down will rest on the ground. The limbs are 
never large, and the tree being tolerant of shade, they are 
prone to adhere to the stem until the tree reaches middle 
life or later. It is not infrequent, however, to see a clean 
stem for sixty to eighty or more feet. On old trees, in dense 
stands, the crown is short and somewhat rounded. Its live 
bark is tough, stringy, and fibrous, and is sometimes woven 
into coarse fabrics and made into baskets by the Indians. 
It lives to a great age. It is a fairly rapid grower in early 
life, but trees from twenty -four to forty inches in diameter 
run from two hundred to five hundred and ten years of 
age. 

Its natural range in the United States — it reaches along 
the Pacific Slope to Alaska — is from the Canadian line 



214 WESTERN RED CEDAR 

southward through Washington, Idaho, Oregon, and into 
northwest California, with scattered stands in northern 
Montana. Its best development is where the air is moist, 
but not next to the ocean. It prefers a fertile soil, but will 
thrive faii-ly well on comparatively dry ground. 

The wood is very light, fragrant, dull and light reddish 
brown in color, but fading on exposure, with straight grain, 
varying from fine to medium, coarse, brittle, soft, easily 
split, and very durable. It is largely used for shingles — 
nearly sixty-five per cent of the shingles manufactured in 
the United States being from that wood — and for rail- 
road ties, poles of all kinds, posts, sills, and every purpose 
where a soft, not strong, but durable wood is required. 

The tree is a free seeder with a high percentage of germ- 
ination, and if allowed, natural reproduction would occur. 
No information can be obtained as to whetlier any effort has 
been made to propagate it beyond what nurserymen have 
undertaken in the East, where it has not shown itself able 
to endure the climatic conditions. No doubt planting in 
the nursery and removing to the forest would succeed, but 
natural reproduction would be ample if allowed. 



BALD CYPRESS : Taxodium distiehum 

Why names widely different in meaning should be used 
to designate what may be fancied as particular character- 
istics of a tree, such as black, white, and red, as is the case 
with the Bald Cypress, is certainly very strange ; but it 
emphasizes the difficulty of indicating what tree is meant 
when only the local common name is given. None of the 
conflicting terms named in this case, however, are used to 
any great extent, and Bald Cypress — probably because of 
its deciduous habit, becoming " bald " in winter — may be 
considered as the accepted name. Lumber cut from the 
tree is known as " cypress " in the trade. While there are 
two species of Cypress on this continent, and several varie- 
ties of one of them, only the one under consideration has 
any commercial value. 

The tree is strictly a conifer, but not an evergreen, for 
it sheds all of its leaves and some of its smallest twigs each 
year. " It matures its fruit in one year, but its flower buds 
are formed the year previous. It is mainly confined to the 
South Atlantic and Gulf regions, where it was once found 
abundantly in swamps and along low banks of streams 
which are usually submerged for months at a time, and in 
the case of some swamps continually so. Large areas, de- 
nominated "cypress swamps," are still to be seen, where 
lumbering operations are difficult and expensive. It is also 
found growing in wet depressions and occasionally on dry 
ground, in Louisiana, Arkansas, Tennessee, Missouri, Ken- 
tucky, southern Illinois, and southern Indiana. It is one 
of the very few species of trees that will accommodate 
itself to extremes of moisture in the soil. Its preferred 
habitat is evidently in swamps where its roots are kept wet 
or continually submerged ; yet when located on dry ground 
it grows nearly if not quite as well as when in a swamp 



216 BALD CYPRESS 

and produces apparently as good lumber. The illustration 
shows a tree standing on a dry knoll in the capitol grounds 
at Harrisburg, Pennsylvania. The base of this knoll is rock, 
and it is covered with alluvial gravel and sand, some twenty 
feet, or thereabout, in thickness. The surface of the ground 
where the tree stands is fully seventy-five feet above the 
water in the Susquehanna River, about one third of a mile 
distant. The tree is eighty-four feet high and twenty-nine 
inches in diameter five feet above the ground. It is pro- 
bably about seventy-five years of age. It cannot be much, 
if any, above that age, as it was set out there some sixty- 
five or seventy years ago. 

It will be observed that the natural tendency of the tree 
is to grow straight and tall, even in the open, where it as- 
sumes a conical form of crown with an acute apex ; but in 
old age, and after it has attained its height growth, the 
limbs spread out and form a round top with a broad base, 
and it is then anything but the symmetrical cone shown in 
the illustration. When growing in swamps, it has a broad 
buttressed stem base, which is usually hollow, and its roots 
throw up smooth conical projections, termed " knees," but 
the extreme form or development of base largely disap- 
pears, and the knees entirely so, when growing on dry 
ground. What purpose these knees serve in the economy 
of the tree, or what functions they perform, is entirely con- 
jectural — possibly to supply air to the roots. 

It sometimes grows to a height of one hundred and fifty 
feet, with a diameter of five or six feet at the height where 
the buttressed base vanishes. These are unusual dimen- 
sions, however. We have no other valuable timber tree 
which so greatly modifies its method and form of growth 
by change of soil and location, or takes on a form in old 
age so widely differing from that of its youth, as the Bald 
Cypress. It is quite a rapid grower in early life, but gen- 
erally slow in its old age, frequently not then increasing 
in diameter more than two inches in thirty or forty years, 
while in early life it may increase more than five times 




I'. \Ln CVl'lIKSS, NOT OVER SEVENTY-FIVE YEARS OLD; TWENTY- 
NINE INCHES IN DIAMETER SIX FEET ABOVE THE 
GROUND, AND EIGHTY-FOUR FEET HIGH 

Note straight stem and freedom from largre limbs and total absence of " knees." 
Stands on State Capitol Grounds, Harrisburg, Pennsylvania. 



BALD CYPRESS 217 

that amount. The one shown in the illustration has exceeded 
that. 

The wood is generally straight-grained, — but not always, 
— light, soft, easily worked, not strong, and very durable 
when exposed. The heartwood is from light to dark brown 
in color, — frequently with dark streaks, — with light- 
colored sapwood. The medullary rays are very small and 
indistinct. There is frequently a marked difference in color 
between spring and summer wood. It is used for general 
construction, interior finish, greenhouse and hotbed sash, 
cooperage, shingles, fence posts, railroad ties, and any pur- 
pose where light, durable wood is required. It takes paint 
and glue well, but does not give a fine finish when varnished, 
showing a dull, dark, monotonous surface. A fungus dis- 
ease pits much of the wood, but as in the case of a similar 
disease in the White Cedar, it stops when the trees are 
felled. Thus far it has been artificially grown entirely for 
ornamental purposes, and nurserymen find little difficulty 
in propagating it. Being a swamp tree, ground that can be 
kept moist should be chosen for a seed-bed. Treatment in 
the nursery should be the same as for White Pine. The 
cones should be gathered as soon as ripe, for they fall apart 
soon thereafter. It is not a prolific seeder. 

As its natural tendency is to grow tall when in the open, 
probably planting eight by eight feet apart in the forest 
would be close enough ; but the distance should be regulated 
by the character of the soil. If rich and moist nine by nine 
feet, or even ten by ten, might do well. Everything done in 
planting this tree in the forests will necessarily be experi- 
mental, and therefore should be carefully conducted and 
on a limited scale. As it is indigenous to this country only, 
and no efforts have been put forth anywhere to grow it as 
a forest tree, all work in that line will necessarily be with- 
out a precedent. About all we know to a certainty concern- 
ing its cultivation is that plants can be grown in a nursery 
and transplanted into quite dry ground and thrive well, 
and it will surely be safe to presume that they can be set 



218 BALD CYPRESS 

out on wet ground and flourish there, for such is evidently 
its preferred location. Its rapidity of growth in early life 
and the excellent character of the wood will certainly justify 
efforts to propagate it in the forests.^ As it is practically 
a southern tree, it cannot be expected to stand extreme 
cold. Probably it will not thrive far north of Pennsyl- 
vania. 

^ " This tree deserves more attention from those who are cultivating 
forest trees than it has ever received. It is a very hardy tree in my grounds, 
and grows quite rapidly, even in a dry soil." — Andrew S. Fuller, in Prac- 
tical Forestry, page 2'49. Orange Judd & Co., 1903. 



THE LARCHES 

There are three species of Larches (botanically Larix) 
indigenous to the United States, and two of them are of 
economic importance. One is mainly confined to the north- 
ern portion of the Eastern States and the other to the 
northern portion of the Kocky Mountain and Pacific Slope 
region. The Eastern species is generally known as " Tama- 
rack," and the Western one as " Larch." The lumber trade 
has adopted these names, and, to avoid confusion, they are 
here accepted. 

Tamarack : Larix laricina 

Tamarack may be occasionally found in the territory 
lying between Virginia on the south and Canada on the 
north, and from western Minnesota on the west to Maine 
on the east. In the southern portion of its range it is seldom 
found as a forest tree elsewhere than in swamps, or on quite 
wet ground bordering swamps and sluggish streams, at a 
high elevation. Further north it accepts comparatively dry 
soil, and grows as rapidly as it does in its southern habitat 
on wet or swampy ground ; but for all that, it is essentially 
a swamp tree. It is not a rapid grower at its best, even in 
its most preferred location, and never attains a large size, 
rarely reaching eighty feet in height or twenty inches in 
diameter ; ordinarily not exceeding sixty feet in height or 
twelve inches through. It grows to a larger size in Canada 
than in the United States, as it is substantially a cold- 
climate tree. In the forest its tendency is to grow tall and 
slim with a true taper of stem from base to crown, if mis- 
hap does not occur to its leader, but if that does happen, 
there is a struggle set up for supremacy and two or more 
stems will be the result. 



220 THE LARCHES 

It is light-demanding, and in the forest is surmounted, 
by a narrow, sharply pyramidal crown, but in the open the 
crown frequently becomes broken and irregular. Crowding 
results in killing off its lower limbs in early life, giving a 
smooth, clean stem, free of large knots. In swamps it devel- 
ops fine, strong, and very long fibrous roots. The Indians 
used these to sew together the birch bark strips of their 
canoes, for which purpose it served admirably. The red man 
called the tree " Hackmatack," a name by which it is known 
in many places. While it is strictly a conifer, it is not an 
evergreen, as it sheds all of its leaves in early fall. The 
leaves are bright green until late summer, when they turn 
a pale yellow. It is not a very frequent nor an abundant 
seed-bearer. The little cones are usually about three fourths 
of an inch long and fall the second year. The seed matures 
the first year and is scarcely an eighth of an inch long, 
with a wing fully three times its length. The wood is heavy 
for what is really a softwood conifer, hard, strong, and. very 
durable when exposed, or in contact with the soil. The heart- 
wood is light brown in color, with lighter colored sapwood. 
Its annual rings are fairly distinct, but there is not much 
difference between spring and summer wood. It is used 
mainly for railroad ties, telegraph and telephone poles, 
fence posts, and other purposes where durable timber in 
contact with the ground is required. The " instep bend " 
of the larger roots is much used in light boat-building. 

Growing plants in the nursery and transplanting them 
into such situations as their nature demands would undoubt- 
edly be successful, but to plant them on low elevations or 
in dry ground in its southern range would not be likely to 
bring forth satisfactory results. Commercial nurserymen 
have no difficulty in growing them for ornamental purposes, 
but if reasonable care should be taken, natural reforesta- 
tion would occur on ground where other and more valuable 
trees will not flourish. Gathering and planting seeds could 
fill in vacant places in swamps, and as the wood is valuable 
for many purposes such a course might be advantageous. 



WESTERN LARCH 221 

A winged insect, commonly known as a " saw-fly," has 
recently attacked the Tamarack in the northern portions 
of its range and is doing much damage, in many cases de- 
stroying large numbers of trees. There is no known remedy. 

Western Larch : Larix occidentalis 

In this we have a tree of much more economic import- 
ance than the Eastern species, notwithstanding its com- 
paratively restricted area. Its natural range is on the west- 
ern slope of the Rocky Mountains and the eastern slopes 
of the Cascade Range, and from northern Montana, Idaho, 
and Washington as far south as southern Oregon. It is 
said to be in varying abundance over much of the forested 
area of Oregon. In its natural domain it is able to adapt 
itself to varying situations, running from moist, low, and 
even wet ground up to dry hill- and mountain-sides. As far 
as known, it has absolutely failed to encourage any belief 
that its cultivation may prove a success anywhere in the 
United States outside of its chosen habitat, although it is 
reported as doing well in Europe. It attains a magnificent 
growth, however, on the dry mountain slopes of its natural 
home. It is seldom found less than two thousand or more 
.than seven thousand feet from sea level. 

The tree frequently reaches a height of over two hun- 
dred feet, with a diameter of six or seven feet in moist 
ground, but on dry mountain-sides it seldom reaches those 
figures. Unfortunately the tree is of slow growth. The 
leaves closely resemble those of the Eastern Tamarack, 
though a trifle longer, and are shed annually. While the 
bark of the Eastern Tamarack is thin, that on old West- 
ern trees is frequently six inches thick from the base to 
twenty or thirty feet above the ground. Like nearly all 
conifers, it is light-demanding, and when grown crowded, 
sends up a slightly tapering, straight stem, free of limbs 
to a height, occasionally, of one hundred feet, with a nar- 
row, short, pyramidal crown running to a sharp point. It is 



222 THE LARCHES 

long-lived, sometimes reaching the age of five hundred 
years. Trees from sixteen to twenty inches in diameter are 
from two hundred and fifty to three hundred years old. 

The heartwood is heavy and exceedingly hard for a coni- 
fer. It is compact, strong, with close, satiny grain, of a light 
red color, with thin and nearly white sapwood, and durable 
when exposed to the weather or in contact with the ground. 
The difference between spring and summer wood is dis- 
tinct both in color and hardness. It is used for general 
construction and especially for interior finish and cabinet- 
work, where its red color, and the readiness with which it 
takes on a fine finish, make it a great favorite with the 
joiner and cabinetmaker. 

It is a prolific seed-bearer, but not always regular. The 
cones are from one to one and one fourth inches long, 
with a needle-like termination to the bracts which lie be- 
tween the scales, and in this feature they slightly resemble 
those of the Douglas Fir. The seeds are small, with a thin, 
frail wing about twice as large as the seed. They have a 
high rate of fertility, but abundant moisture is required for 
both germination and the growth of seedlings. 

Whether any attempt has been made to propagate it in its 
natural habitat is not known. Nurserymen in the East have 
failed to secure good results in attempts to grow it. It is a 
slow grower, and should seedlings be successfully grown 
in the nursery, transplanting them into the soil of a moun- 
tain-side would be fraught with uncertainty. Quite likely 
seed planting where the trees are to stand would be best. 
Experiment alone can determine what course must be pur- 
sued to aid Nature in propagating it. The value of the tree 
for economic purposes, notwithstanding its slow growth, 
should stimulate efforts to reproduce it in some way, as it 
grows where but few species as valuable can grow. Its thick 
bark must serve to protect the old trees from fire, and if 
fire should kill the younger growth there would still be 
seed trees left, unless the lumberman's axe should prevent. 



EUROPEAN LARCH 223 



European Larch : Larix europcea 

This deciduous and foreign conifer is quite similar 
in general appearance to our native Eastern Tamarack 
(^Larix laricina)^ but is unlike it in choice of soils. Its 
natural home is in central and northern Europe. It is 
abundant in the mountain regions of France, Germany, 
and Switzerland, but is probably most extensively planted 
in the western portion of the Austrian Empire. It thrives 
best there on the lower mountain slopes, and delights in 
a moderately fertile and well-drained soil, but will grow 
fairly well on a poor one if not too decidedly sterile. It is 
a deep-rooted tree and cannot stand much moisture in the 
subsoil. It will start vigorously in such soils, but soon fails. 
In all this it is the direct opposite of our Eastern Larch, 
but somewhat resembles the Western one. 

At home in the forest it develops into a tall, straight, 
and somewhat tapering stem, clean of limbs for one half or 
more of its height. It is not unusual for it to reach a dia- 
meter of three feet and a height of ninety to one hundred 
feet. In the open it takes on a distinctly pyramidal form, 
with its lower limbs resting on the ground, and running to 
a sharp apex at the top. In this it closely resembles the 
Spruces and Firs. It is light-demanding in the extreme and 
appears to prefer other species for its near neighbors, and 
it is claimed that it is never found in pure stands in natur- 
ally planted forests. It is a rapid grower and in this excels 
nearly, if not quite, all other high-grade conifers, especially 
on dry soils. Probably no other tree except the Chestnut 
and Catalpawill produce fence posts and telegraph and other 
poles to carry electric wires of so great durability and so 
soon as will the European Larch in favorable locations. 
Dr. Hugh P. Baker ^ states : " There are several groves 
in Iowa planted from twenty to thirty years ago from 
which telephone poles are being sold at from $1.00 to $1.15 
^ Iowa Slate College Bulletin, No. 90. 



224 THE LARCHES 

per pole, and a Larch grove on the campus, planted in 
1873, with one hundred and ninety-five trees in one block, 
shows an average of forty-seven feet in height and a diameter 
of seven inches." 

The wood is heavy, strong, and very durable in contact 
with the ground. In its home the wood is flexible, close- 
grained, and of considerable strength, but it is said to be 
brittle when grown on the rich prairie soils of our Western 
States. When grown on moist, fertile soil the heartwood 
is yellowish white, with nearly white sapwood, but the 
heartwood is a reddish brown and much harder when grown 
on less fertile and higher ground. It is largely used for gen- 
eral construction, poles of all kinds, railroad ties, ship- 
building, and all other purposes where moderate strength 
or long exemption from decay is desired. 

The tree is a fairly good seeder, but does not produce 
seeds in early life. The seeds are in small upright cones 
and mature the first year. At present seeds must be secured 
from abroad, for few trees in this country are old enough 
to produce them. There is no difficulty in propagation. 
The same treatment should prevail as with White Pine. 
The seed does not appear to have a high percentage of fer- 
tility. A production of 20,000 to 25,000 plants to a pound 
of seed containing quite 70,000 seems to be about the 
average. 

Seedlings may be transplanted into the forest when two 
years old, but had better be given another year in the nurs- 
ery. As they are endowed with a fairly good fibrous root 
system, ti-ansplanting in the nursery is not so essential as 
with some conifers, although such treatment would give 
the trees greater strength to overcome their foes in the 
forest, notwithstanding that they make a more rapid growth 
in early life than most of the conifers. 

We have much to learn about growing this tree in our 
forests, and any opinion which may now be ventured is 
liable to error. This much we know about it in its natural 
habitat : it does not submit to very close planting, nor does 



EUROPEAN LARCH 225 

it appear to thrive well in pure stands. Just how far apart 
to plant the trees in the forest and just what trees to mix 
with them must be determined by experience yet to be en- 
joyed. Probably White Pine, or perhaps Norway Spruce, 
as in Europe, may do well to mix with them. Or, if broad- 
leaf trees be chosen, White Ash, Tulip-tree, or White 
Elm may do. However, as the tree is deciduous, it would 
seem best to plant evergreens with it, to keep the forest 
floor shaded in winter. As it starts growth very early in 
the spring, transplanting should take place as soon as the 
frost is out of the ground, and it might be well to heel the 
plants in as soon as they can be removed in the spring. 

The tree sometimes suffers in Europe from attacks of 
insects and a fungus disease. The latter frequently plays 
havoc, as it is practically uncontrollable. Thus far little 
damage has come to plantations in this country from either 
source. Taken altogether, the tree is one of much promise, 
and thorough and careful effoi'ts should be put forth to 
determine how far we can go towards making it as useful 
here as it is in its natural home. 



THE SEQUOIAS 

There are two species of Sequoias, botli of which are 
indigenous to the Pacific Slope. One is the Big Tree 
(^Sequoia washingtoniana), and the other the Redwood 
(^Sequoia semiyervirens). They are the only remaining ones 
of several species which have come down to us from the 
days when mammals first appeared on the earth. Their ex- 
istence in olden times is shown by their remains, which are 
to be found in the rocks of the Tertiary and Cretaceous 
periods. Then, as now, they grew in a warm and, doubt- 
less, moist climate, but the domain in which they then 
grew now lies near, and in part within, the Arctic Circle. 
They and the Bald Cypress are distant relatives. They are 
anions: the tallest and are the most massive trees in the world ; 
and some of them, still in life and vigorous, are among the 
oldest if not the very oldest living things. They are con- 
fined by climatic conditions to a limited area, and efforts 
to srrow them elsewhere in the United States have not 
proved successful ; yet they appear to thrive well in some 
parts of Europe, and our inability to enlarge the area in 
which they will grow should stimulate a determination that 
they shall not be sacrificed to a greed of gain, or be the 
victims of a spirit of vandalism. 

Big Tree : Sequoia washingtoniana 

There has been some dispute over the technical name 
which this tree should bear, but the weight of evidence is with 
Sequoia washmgto?iiana as against Sequoia wellingtonia, 
and it is in entire harmony with patriotic sentiment. Its 
natural range is confined to California, and is there limited 
to the west side of the Sierra from the southern part of 
Placer County to Tulare County, at an elevation ranging 




BIG TREES, WITH SUGAR PINE, WESTERN YELLOW PINE, AND 
WHITE FIR. SIERRA NEVADA, CALIFORNIA 

Courtesy of U. S. Forest Service. 



BIG TREE 227 

from five thousand to eight thousand feet above the sea. 
While growing largely in groves, it is found scattered 
among other species. The total area in which it grows com- 
prises about fifty square miles, and as it is probably limited 
to this region, it can cut but a small figure as a lumber- 
producing tree. Many of the giants now standing — and 
which, if permitted, would live for several thousand years 
— will undoubtedly be cut, notwithstanding the fact that 
only from twenty-five to thirty per cent of the contents of 
the average tree is secured, owing to breakage in falling, 
failure to take what may be deemed of inferior quality, 
high stumps, and loss through splitting logs to reduce them 
to a size that can be sawed into lumber. Add to this the 
destruction by fire or changed surroundings of practically 
all young growth on the area cut over, and the danger of 
extinction is apparent. It is gratifying to note that the 
United States Government has secured some of the best 
groves, which have been placed beyond the reach of vandals, 
and it is devoutly wished that more will be secured. 

Their dimensions are enormous. The largest trees are 
from two hundred and fifty to three hundred and thirty 
feet high and from twenty to twenty-seven feet in diame- 
ter next above the swelled base. Old trees are clear of 
branches from eighty to one hundred and twenty-five feet 
or more. They are long-lived, reaching an age of three 
thousand to four thousand years, and possibly more. 

The wood is a brilliant rose-purple red in color when 
first cut, changing later to a dull purplish brown. It is very 
light, brittle, soft, varying in grain, during the first four 
hundred or five hundred years' growth, from coarse to very 
fine as the tree approaches old age. Containing a large 
amount of tannin, the wood is very durable. It is used for 
general construction, shingles, siding, and almost all pur- 
poses to which a soft, durable wood can be put, but it is 
largely sold in the market as Redwood, and it must be 
admitted that the purchaser is not wronged. 

It is a prolific seeder, and if permitted would reproduce 



228 THE SEQUOIAS 

itself without aid ; or it can be aided by planting seeds or 
growing trees iu a nursery and transplanting them into the 
forest iu their natural habitat. Probably no eiiort will be 
made to restore it where cut off unless the task is under- 
taken by the United States Government or the State of 
California. It is not known what, if anything, has been 
done in that line. 

Redwood : Sequoia sempervirens 

Heke is another mighty giant of the forest. While it does 
not grow to as great a diameter as the Big Tree it excels it 
in height. Trees from two hundred and fifty to three hun- 
dred feet high and from eight to twelve or even fifteen feet 
in diameter, immediately above the swelled base, are not 
uncommon, while old and exceptionally large ones have been 
found from three hundred and twenty-five to three hundred 
and fifty feet high and twenty feet in diameter. Old trees 
are clear of limbs for eighty to one hundred feet in dense 
forests. It has the habit, possessed by no other valuable 
species of conifer, of sending up sprouts from its roots that 
will grow into valuable timber for the saw. When growing 
in the open, trees up to fifteen inches in diameter show a 
narrow, regular, conical crown from the ground up, the 
lower limbs drooping, the middle ones nearly horizontal, 
and the upper ones slanting upward. Being light-demand- 
ing, the lower limbs, if in a dense or approximately dense 
stand, die and drop off. In old age the whole crown is 
changed, and a few straggling branches extend far out and 
the crown becomes irregular, open, and sometimes rounded. 

Its natural range is a belt along the Pacific Coast from 
southwestern Oregon to Santa Cruz, in California. The 
greatest width of the belt does not exceed thirty, and at 
some points not over ten miles. Its greatest development is 
in Mendocino, Del Norte, and Humboldt counties, California, 
where it may be found along the valleys and against the 
mountain-sides, but nowhere more than 2800 feet above the 



REDWOOD 229 

ocean. There is a very fiue grove near Santa Cruz that is 
not over six miles from the ocean or more than two hundred 
feet above it. It is found nowhere outside of California 
except on a small area in southwestern Oregon, and all 
attempts to grow it elsewhere in the United States have 
proved unsuccessful, although it appears to thrive in Eu- 
rope. It.revels in a moist atmosphere and evidently cannot 
do without it. 

It is being lai'gely cut for lumber in the counties named, 
and if the present rate and method of cutting are kept up, 
it will be practically exhausted in thirty years. The method 
of harvesting is, to say the least, unique. The trees are 
felled, the bark peeled off, the limbs lopped, and the tree 
lies untouched until the bark and limbs are dry enough to 
burn, when fire is set and the whole tract burned over. 
This is done to get limbs and bark out of the way, the 
latter sometimes being twelve to fifteen inches thick. The 
tree is then cut into logs, and such as are too large for the 
sawmill are split open with powder or dynamite — some- 
times even quartered. Seldom is a tree cut for lumber under 
twenty to twenty-four inches in diameter. Those under that 
are left to be killed by fire, to be blown down, or to die 
from changed surroundings. It yields from forty thousand to 
seventy-five thousand board feet to the acre, and not infre- 
quently three hundred thousand feet. A single case is re- 
ported where one million feet were secured from one acre, 
but the percentage of loss is very great, the same as with 
the Big Trees. 

The wood is about as heavy as White Pine, very soft, 
brittle, of a purplish, red-brown color, and very durable. 
It is rather dull when varnished, but makes excellent inte- 
rior finish, and is used for general construction, siding, 
shingles, and foundations for buildings, where it is com- 
monly placed without anything intervening between it and 
the ground. It is claimed that fence posts have lasted 
thirty-five years without showing decay. It takes paint and 
glue well. There is little difference between spring and 



230 THE SEQUOIAS 

summer wood, and tlie medullary rays are small and incon- 
spicuous. It is very straight-grained and splits easily. Rail- 
road ties and fence palings are split out and require little 
dressing, and shingles six inches wide and three feet long, 
called "shakes," are split and used without fui'ther labor 
being bestowed upon them. It shrinks endwise appreciably 
when seasoning. Woodworkers assert that the wood dulls 
planes and other tools used in working it. It is not valua- 
ble for fuel, although used for that to some extent, but 
mainly because no better can be secured in the vicinity. 

The tree is a prolific seeder, but the percentage of fer- 
tility is low, not exceeding twenty-five per cent. The cones 
are small and mature in one season. If permitted, natural 
reproduction from seed would take place, but as it sprouts 
freely from the living tree as well as from cut stumps, re- 
production would surely result if not seriously interfered 
with, and, therefore, seed-planting would be wholly un- 
necessary if fire were kept out, unless additional areas were 
sought. No one of our valuable timber trees is more sus- 
ceptible to natural reproduction than this, and yet nothing 
is being done to encourage or even permit it. 



THE OAKS: WHITE OAK CLASS 

Of the two hundred and fifty species of Oaks in the 
world nearly fifty can be credited to the United States, and 
of these not more than fifteen, if as many, can be classed 
as valuable timber trees. The lumber trade makes three 
general classes, Red, White, and Live Oak, and of these 
the White Oak class is by far the most important. While 
there is a difference in the character of the lumber produced 
from the several species of the White Oak class, the con- 
sumer, unless an expert, will seldom detect the difference, 
nor will he be much the loser if he does not. Except for 
special purposes, such as tight cooperage and the like, the 
lumber of nearly all species of White Oak now manufac- 
tured is equally serviceable. And so, too, it is with the Red 
Oak class — one tree being about as good as another. But 
there is a wide difference between the two classes. There are 
certain features in the wood of the White Oak class that 
the Red Oak class does not possess, and the distinction be- 
tween the two should always be understood and insisted 
upon by both buyer and seller. The division is one based 
not only on the structural and economic differences in the 
wood, but on botanical disagreement. In the White Oak 
class the wood is stronger, more durable, especially when 
exposed to the weather or in contact with the ground, and 
is adapted to more economic purposes. One of the botani- 
cal differences is with few exceptions that the seeds of the 
White Oak class mature in one year while those of the 
Red Oak class require two years.^ 

1 There are two Oaks on the Pacific Slope clearly belonging to the White 
Oak class that require two years for their acorns to mature, and two as clearly 
of the Red Oak class that mature theirs in one year. In all other respects 
they agree with their respective classes. They are of no importance as tim- 
ber trees. 



232 WHITE OAK CLASS 

The possible botanical range of Live Oak is limited to a 
narrow strip along the coast of the Southern States and in 
California, the latter, however, producing a very inferior 
grade of lumber. The large use of steel in shipbuilding has 
greatly lessened the demand for Live Oak, and its repro- 
duction by planting would hardly be a paying investment. 
By reasonable care natural I'eproduction will be quite likely 
to provide a sufficient supply. Its habit of branching out low 
down renders it unsuited for saw timber except in short 
lengths. Its crotches and crooked limbs are used as knees 
and other like forms in boat- and ship-building. 

White Oak Class. All the lumber produced from trees 
named in this paragraj)h is commercially classed and sold 
as White Oak : White Oak ( Quercus alba), Post Oak ( Q. 
77iuior), Burr Oak ( Q. 77)acrocat'pa), Overcup Oak ( Q. lyr- 
ata)y Swamp White Oak ( Q. platajioides). Cow Oak ( Q. 
miclHmxii), YeWow Oak {Q. acuminata') and Chestnut Oak 
Q. pi'inus), with several others of less note. 

Red Oak Class. Lumber cut from the following list of 
trees is classed and sold as Ked Oak : Ked Oak ( Quei'ais 
rubra), Pin Oak (^Q. jjalustris). Black Oak QQ. vchitina)^ 
Spanish Oak {Q. pagodcefoUa^, Southern Red Oak (Q. 
texana), with half a score or more of no very great im- 
portance, and not worthy of cultivation when more valua- 
ble ones can be grown in their stead. 

White Oak : Querc2is alba 

Of all the broadleaf trees of America, White Oak is the 
most important. For some purposes there is no substitute 
thus far known, and its rapid destruction attests the estima- 
tion in which it is held. When standing in favorable loca- 
tions, trees have been found over one hundred feet high, clean 
of limb for sixty or seventy-five feet, with slightly tapering 
body, and over five feet in diameter breast high. The area 
of its natural range is great. Its boundary stretches from 
Maine to northern Florida, from there to eastern Texas, 



WHITE OAK 233 

from Texas north to central Wisconsin, and from there 
across Michigan to the Canadian line and along that line 
to central Maine and thence to the Atlantic Ocean. The 
western slope of the Alleghany Mountains and the valley 
of the Ohio River are the regions of its best development, 
yet vast quantities of this noble tree have been found else- 
where. In many sections of our country there once stood 
pure forests of it, and in others it constituted more than 
one half the stand. 

As with other trees, a rich suitable soil is conducive to 
a vigorous growth, and the rapidity of that growth and the 
size of the tree depend upon favorable conditions and sur- 
^undings. Vigorous and rapidly growing Oaks produce 
„ne best lumber. On dry, rocky ridges the tree grows slowly 
and will not there attain a large size of body, but appears 
to reach a limit beyond which it cannot go, and the wood 
is not of the best quality. It is decidedly a light-demanding 
tree. In the open, it will grow a large, short, and rapidly 
tapering stem, with wide-spreading, large and frequently 
specialized limbs, and assumes a rounded, low crown ; but 
when crowded in a forest, it will shoot up a straight stem, 
free from large limbs until well up, when it will throw out 
spreading ones and form a somewhat irregular crown, but 
in the main a round one. As a rule the stem tapers but 
little when crowded until the large limbs are reached. In 
some localities small bunches of twigs will be found along 
the stem, even in quite a dense shade, but these never grow 
large and do little injury to the lumber. 

The wood is strong, hard, heavy, tough, rather coarse- 
grained, does not split easily, and shows a distinct mark- 
ing between spring and summer growth. It is durable when 
exposed to the weather or in contact with the ground. The 
large amount of acid in the wood serves to protect it from 
the attacks of many of the fungi. The heart wood is of a 
rather yellowish light-bi'own color, with slightly lighter and 
not very thick sapwood. Its medullary rays are large and 
conspicuous, and when lumber is sawed radially — "quar- 



231 Wliri'K OAK CLASS 

ter-sawod " is the otiunnoiTial aiul trade term — it is one of 
the most esteemed amonj*; our native woods for cabinets 
work, interior <lnisli, and iloors, only lUaek Wahuit and 
lilaclv C^herry eontestint;' with it for siipremaey. Large 
quantities of it are eut into veneers for interior tinish and 
the like. It takes high polish, and, when not eovered with 
artitieial stain, grows rieher in ei»lor and transpareney of 
texture as age ereeps on. The annual layers are very dis- 
tinet and show several rows of pores or duets whieh must 
be elosovl with some kind of "wood tiller" before varnish 
is applied. It seasons well, but when sawed from young 
and rapidly growing trees is liable to spring and warj> and 
also eheek if not properly j)iled and I'ared for. When 
sawed tangent ially — '* bastanl fashion," '* plain," or " tlat- 
sawed," its meilullary rays are starting-points for eheeks, 
nn<l decay enters there when exposed. No wood has a wider 
range of usefulness. It is\ised in shii>buildingaud for trestles, 
bridges, piles, railroad ties, earriagework, agrieultural im- 
plements, and tight and loose cooperage, as well as for interior 
finish atul furniture. For vessels eontaiuiiig wine and other 
spirits no satisfactory substitute has hccu f»nnul. For pur- 
poses where strength and ilurability are desired it is uni- 
versally sought. 

White Oak is at best a slow grtnver, but when fairly 
establislied it continues in a very regular ami uniform way 
to a good (dd ago, three hundred years or more. As indi- 
cated, it cannot stand much crowding, auil it is doubtful if 
more than one luuulred trees to the acre, if so many, should be 
left to mature if the best results for sawed hwnber are 
sought, but the trees must be crowdeil in early life and until 
they attain a proper height. There is little priU>ability, how- 
ever, that future generations \\'\\\ see much \\ hite C)ak al- 
lowed to gi'ow to a protitable size for that purpose. It will 
be cut fi>r railroad ties and like uses as soon as large 
enough, which will be when tlie trees are from sixty to 
eighty years of age. To let them stand long enough for 
good width of boards would reipiire more than twice that 



W^^'S^: 




*ftmffr 



l^^Htiu- 



/#r 





WHITE OAK 235 

period, and the harvest would probably not be worth enough 
more to make up for care and interest on the investment. 

The natural reproduction of White Oak must come either 
through seed-scattering by animals — mice, squirrels, and 
birds — or by sprouting from the stump of a cut tree or 
the roots of a decaying one. The acorns are too heavy to 
be blown by the wind and they naturally spread no farther 
than the limbs of the tree extend, and if they germinate 
there they will not thrive for want of light ; and thus we 
are left mainly to the animals named for the scattering of 
the seeds of this tree, as we are for all the heavy-seeded or 
nut-bearing trees. 

Sprout reproduction cannot be depended upon to any 
great extent, although cut stumps and decaying trees will 
throw up some shoots, but the habit is not general. Its ten- 
dency to do this is much overestimated, through a misun- 
derstanding of the causes which frequently result in two or 
more trees springing from one and the same root system, 
which are mistaken for sprouts. Such are not necessarily 
sprouts, as the term is generally understood, nor do they 
produce an increase of useful timber. The seedling White 
Oak has a slow and frail growth for the first three or four 
years, while the tap-root is running deep into the ground. 
If an injury occurs to the terminal bud of the tender stem, 
the lower buds will be forced into growth by the strong and 
vigorous root system which has been developed, and two or 
more stems will spring from the same root, each struggling 
to be leader. Sometimes — and quite frequently — a one- or 
two-year-old seedling will develop two terminal buds at the 
end of the season, and the next year both will grow. Fre- 
quently one of these will outgrow the other. Such growth 
is not " sprouting," nor is it reproduction, for all are of the 
same age, and from the same roots. Genuine sprout growth 
is weak at best, and timber suitable for anything larger 
than railroad ties, fence posts, or cordwood should not be 
expected from it, and one crop of sprout timber will so 
weaken the root system that it will either die outright or 



236 WHITE OAK CLASS 

the second cutting will be of little value. Thus it will be 
seen that rapid natural reproduction is unlikely to occur 
under the most favorable circumstances. Moreover, the 
tree does not bear fruit in early life in the forest — seldom 
under fifty yeax's. 

Having a tap-root well developed when young, and suf- 
fering severely from its loss, it is manifest that growing 
the trees in a nursery and transplanting them into the foi*est 
would be quite likely to result in frequent failure. It is not 
denied that the little tree will recover, to a certain extent, 
from loss of the tap-root, which will inevitably occur when 
removed from the nursery, but it is well known that it takes 
a long time to do it, and it is doubtful if it ever does fully 
overcome it. 

The remaining method of growing a White Oak forest 
is to plant the acorns where the trees are to stand during 
life, and this is evidently the best way. It has some draw- 
backs. The principal one is that the young trees are liable 
to be overcome and smothered by grass, weeds, or bushes 
growing on the ground where planted, and it might be 
necessary, in some cases, to remove such from around the 
little trees for the first few years. Then there is danger 
that mice or squirrels may dig up the seeds after they are 
planted, for the acorns are freely eaten by them. To avoid 
this, planting would be best done in the spring, the acorns 
being properly cared for over winter. 

The acorns should be gathered as soon as ripe and either 
planted at once or put in layers with moist sand and kept 
in a cool place until planted. If not kept cold — freezing 
will do no harm — the acorns are liable to sprout. It is not 
an uncommon thing to find them sprouted in the fall where 
they have been covered with leaves and kept moist, yet they 
should not be allowed to become dry. In planting, a hole 
can be made with a sharp stick, or one dug with a mattock, 
— the latter by far the better way, — and two or three 
acorns dropped in and covered about one and one half 
inches deep. If the ground is naturally dry and loose, two 



WHITE OAK 237 

inches will not be too deep, but if moist and compact, an 
inch may do. The number of acorns named is to insure a 
tree in each place, as all of them may not prove fertile, nor 
will all survive. It would be best to scatter the acorns when 
dropping them, and the superfluous trees can be removed 
when the best one has become firmly established. 

The distance apart that the seeds should be planted must 
be determined from the character of the ground and the 
location, and whether other trees are to be planted with 
them. If alone, they may be put from five to six feet apart 
each way, and when the time for thinning arrives some 
may, and doubtless will, be large enough for fence posts ; 
but if planted ten feet apart, some other species of trees 
could be set between them to force the Oaks to seek light 
and drop their lower branches and the nurse trees be re- 
moved later. When the Oaks have attained a suitable height, 
thinning should take place gradually, leaving at last only 
as many as can be grown in a thrifty condition, which will 
probably never exceed one hundred and twenty-five to the 
acre — more likely a smaller number. As Chestnut and 
White Oak are largely associated in natural forests, the 
former would be a good " nurse tree " to plant with the 
latter, but the Chestnuts should not be planted until the 
second or even third or fourth year after the acorns, for 
the reason that the Chestnut grows much faster than the 
Oak. When the Chestnuts are cut, they will throw up 
sprouts and thus preserve the forest floor in good condition. 
The great value of White Oak lumber will certainly justify 
attempts to grow extensive forests of that tree, notwith- 
standing its slow growth. Unless this is done, it will soon 
be practically exterminated and the loss greatly felt. The 
great importance of the tree is the justification offered for 
this lengthy consideration of its characteristics, growth, 
and cultivation. 



238 WHITE OAK CLASS 



Swamp White Oak : Quercus platanoides 

The common name of this tree indicates its habitat as 
correctly as it does the class to which it belongs. In gen- 
eral appearance, however, it quite resembles the Chestnut 
Oak, and could appropriately be called Swamp Chestnut 
Oak. Both its leaves and bark more closely resemble 
Chestnut Oak than they do White Oak, yet its wood is 
very similar in appearance and quality to that of the lat- 
ter tree, and it is sold as such with little or no wrong to 
the purchaser. Its natural range is from the New England 
States westward to Iowa and Missouri, southward along 
the Appalachian Mountains to northern Georgia, and in the 
East from Maine to Virginia. It is nowhere very abundant, 
though it can occasionally be found in small groves. Its 
best development is in western New York, northwestern 
Pennsylvania, and northern Ohio. It may be seen along 
streams in low, rich ground, around and along the borders 
of and even in swamps, mingled with other trees that flour- 
ish in moist or wet ground. It is only moderately light- 
demanding. 

The tree has been known to reach a height of one hun- 
dred feet with a diameter of seven or eight feet ; but such 
growth is extremely rare. It seldom exceeds seventy-five 
feet in height or three feet in diameter. Standing where 
it is constantly supplied with moisture, its growth, after 
the first five or six years, is quite even and rapid. Notwith- 
standing that it does not object to wet feet, but rather 
prefers that condition, it will grow well in any moist, rich 
soil. 

The wood is hard and heavy, tough, strong, close-grained, 
and very durable when in contact with the ground. The 
heartwood is light brown, with thin and barely distinguish- 
able sapwood. Its medullary rays are as prominent and as 
conspicuous as in White Oak, which makes it acceptable 
for furniture and interior finish. It is used for all the pur- 



CHESTNUT OAK 239 

poses that White Oak is, — and the tree may be accepted 
as a White Oak adapted to growing in wet ground. 

Its propagation should be undertaken along the same 
lines as White Oak, although it does not develop a promi- 
nent tap-root except when growing on dry ground. It ma- 
tures its seed in one year. Unfortunately it does not shed 
its lower limbs readily even when crowded, but these are 
seldom large enough to injure the lumber seriously. Close 
planting may modify that characteristic ; anyway, close 
planting would have that tendency. No information can 
be obtained that its propagation has ever been attempted. 
There would certainly be no reason to undertake its culti- 
vation where White Oak will grow, but it may be under- 
taken where White Oak will not thrive. 

There is another Swamp White Oak, Quercus lyrata^ 
commonly called "Overcup Oak," ranging from northern 
Maryland southward to northern Floi-ida and westward to 
northeastern Missouri. Its name, " Overcup," was bestowed 
upon it because the cup nearly or quite covers the acorn. 
Its general characteristics are practically the same as that 
of the Swamp White Oak just described, and hence a de- 
tailed account of this one would be superfluous. Aside from 
some little difficulty in seasoning, its wood is as valuable 
as that of the other. 

Chestnut Oak : Kock Oak : Quercus prinus 

In their general outline the leaves of this Oak resemble 
those of the well-known Chestnut ( Castanea dentata), and 
hence the name " Chestnut Oak." In some sections it is 
known as " Tan Oak," because its bark is rich in tannin, the 
most so of any of the Oaks ; and, as it frequently grows in 
rocky situations, it is sometimes called " Rock Oak." It is 
very common in the Appalachian Mountains from Pennsyl- 
vania to northern Georgia and Alabama. Its best develop- 
ment is on the lower mountains of eastern Tennessee and 
Kentucky and in the western part of the Carolinas, where 



240 WHITE OAK CLASS 

it is frequently the prevailing tree. While growing in the 
New England States, it does not appear to be very evenly dis- 
tributed or very abundant there. It flourishes best in deep, 
rich soil, but will grow on dry, sterile, and even rocky 
slopes and hillsides. In its best development it has been 
found one hundred feet high and six feet in diameter, but 
trees of these dimensions can be seen only in rich soils, 
and rarely there. In poor soils it is much smaller, seldom 
over three feet in diameter or more than fifty feet in height ; 
while in some localities it does not exceed ten inches in 
diameter, with a height of not over thirty or forty feet, 
even at the age of one hundred years. 

It is light-demanding, and unless closely crowded during 
early life it branches out anywhere from six to fifteen feet 
above the ground with somewhat specialized limbs. When 
not crowded, it frequently grows crooked. When young its 
bark is quite smooth, but as age increases, the bark becomes 
deeply furrowed vertically, more so than on any other Oak. 
The dead bark does not scale off, and it will frequently 
be found nearly if not quite three inches thick. At best 
the tree is a rather slow grower. 

Its wood is tough, heavy, hard, strong, durable, rather 
close-grained, and with conspicuous medullary rays. It has 
few open ducts and requires less " filler " for a good finish 
than most Oaks. When finished without stain, its hard, 
satiny, and lustrous surface is deemed superior to White 
Oak. The color of the heartwood is rather darker than the 
average of White Oak, with a light-colored sapwood. One 
serious drawback to its usefulness as a finishing-wood is 
its tendency to check when seasoning. This can be largely 
overcome by proper piling. In substantially all respects the 
wood is used for the same purposes as White Oak, and for 
fuel is superior to any other Oak. 

It is not a prolific seeder, and as the acorns are sought 
by squirrels and mice, its natural reproduction is slow. It 
has a tap-root which will prevent successful transplanting 
from the nursery ; hence its reproduction can best be brought 



BURR OAK 241 

about by planting, as recommended for White Oak. Be- 
longing to the White Oak class, its acorns mature in one 
year. The distance apart that the seeds should be planted 
in the forest must be largely determined by the character 
of the soil and the location. If in fertile, moist ground five 
to six feet would be advisable, but if on dry, rocky, and 
sterile ground, then four to five feet would be far enough 
apart. 

Burr Oak : Quercus macrocarpa 

This tree is most generally known as Burr Oak, although 
in some sections of the country it is called " Mossycup 
Oak," from the fact that its acorn is largely covered by a 
cup which is clothed with pointed scales, having a loose 
fringed boi'der ; and this name is not at all inappropriate. 
It is an important member of the White Oak class and in 
many respects is a close competitor in general usefulness 
with the White Oak. Its botanical range is greater, and 
while it prefers low, rich bottom lands along rivers and 
smaller streams, it will accept high grounds if fertile ; but 
it does not grow on uplands as readily or thrive as well 
there as White Oak. Its range covers, intermittently, the 
entire country east of the foothills of the Rocky Mountains, 
excepting the Carolinas, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mis- 
sissippi, and parts of Texas and Tennessee. It attains its 
greatest size in Indiana and Illinois, where it has been 
found one hundred and sixty feet high and six feet in diam- 
eter, with a stem clean of limbs for a height of seventy- 
five feet or more. It has broad-spreading branches and is 
a giant among its associates. It will make up a pure forest 
or thrive with such companions as seek the soil it prefers. 
It largely formed the well-known " oak openings " in some 
of the Western States. Like nearly all other Oaks, it is 
intolerant of shade. It has a thick deeply furrowed bark, 
and in this it is equaled only by the Chestnut Oak. 

Its wood is strong, hard, heavy, tough, close-grained, 



242 WHITE OAK CLASS 

and durable. The heartwood is a rich yellowish brown, 
sometimes quite dark, with a thin, light-colored sapwood. 
Its annual rings are conspicuous and spring and summer 
wood are quite distinct. It has broad, conspicuous medul- 
lary rays, which add to its good qualities when used for 
furniture or interior finish. It is used for substantially all 
purposes to which White Oak is adapted. 

It is a slow grower unless in rich moist soil, in which case 
it frequently outstrips White Oak. There is apparently 
nothing about it to prevent its cultivation in soil adapted 
to it. It has been planted to a limited extent in the West, 
and where conditions are favorable it flourishes. Its culti- 
vation should evidently be along the same lines that must 
be pursued for White Oak. Like that tree it has a tap- 
root, but does not appear to object so seriously to inter- 
ference with it. Gathering and caring for its seed must be 
the same as for other Oaks. The acorns mature in one year. 
Probably the best distance apart to plant the acorns or 
trees in the forest would be from five to six feet, according 
to fertility of soil. 

Cow Oak : Quercus michauxii 

Like the Swamp White Oak, this tree grows along 
streams and on the borders of swamps, and can endure 
standing in water for some time without apparent injury. 
Like that tree, also, its leaves resemble somewhat those of 
the Chestnut Oak. Its bark, however, is more nearly like 
that of the White Oak than any other. It is quite probably 
a hybrid. There is some question whether this and the 
Swamp White Oak are not varieties of the White Oak 
changed by conditions of soil, climate, or surroundings. 

Its natural range is south of that occupied by the Swamp 
White Oak, closely following the southern line of that tree's 
rangre. It reaches to northern Florida and the Gulf. West- 
ward it goes to eastern Texas, Indian Territory, and south- 
ern Missouri. In the forest it grows to a height of one hun- 



cow OAK 243 

dred feet with a diameter of five or even six feet, with a 
clean stem for fifty or more feet. Like nearly all other 
Oaks, it is intolerant of shade. 

The wood is hard, heavy, tough, strong, coarse-grained, 
and durable. The heartwood is a light brown, with a thin and 
darker-colored sapwood. Its medullary rays are large and 
conspicuous, but not numerous, and its annual rings are 
clearly shown. There is a distinct difference between the 
spring and summer wood, the pores in the former being 
very prominent. Its wood is quite like that of the White 
Oak, differing mainly in being more easily split, especially 
between the annual layers. This feature makes it available 
for basketwork and has given it the name of " Basket Oak " 
in some localities. It is used for interior finish, cabinet- 
work, general construction, railroad ties, and substantially 
all purposes for which White Oak can be used. The tree 
could very appropriately be called the White Oak of the 
Southern States, and, excepting the Southern Red Oak, it is, 
no doubt, the most valuable broadleaf tree growing there. 

Unfortunately it does not appear to flourish on dry 
ground, and until it is experimentally shown that it will 
grow there, its cultivation should be confined to its natural 
soil. As it naturally grows where nearly all other valuable 
timber trees refuse to grow, this, aside from its good quali- 
ties as a timber tree, is an additional reason for its cultiva- 
tion. Standing more or less in the water, it has no need of a 
tap-root, and hence that feature has not been greatly devel- 
oped, as in most other Oaks, and there should be little diffi- 
culty in transplanting it when young, and the moist ground in 
which it grows should insure success. But this would be ex- 
perimental, for there are no known efforts in that line. Its 
propagation by planting seeds would certainly be a safe 
undertaking, for that would be but following Nature. Gath- 
ering and planting the acorns — they mature in one year — 
should be the same as for other Oaks, and the distance 
apart for planting, the same. As the ground should be at 
least moist where the seeds are planted, it would naturally 



244 WHITE OAK CLASS 

follow that they should not be covered as deep as would be 
necessary on dry ground. 

Post Oak : Quercus minor 

This Oak is classed and sold in the lumber market as 
White Oak, and it has some of the good qualities of that 
noted tree, but by no means all. Its natural range is a wide 
one and is included in a boundary line running from Cape 
Cod along the Atlantic Coast to northern Florida, from 
there along the Gulf to Galveston, thence northward 
to Kansas, and from there in almost a direct line across 
Missouri, Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, and Pennsylvania to 
Massachusetts. In localities of its best development trees 
have been found one hundred feet high and three feet in 
diameter, but this is far above the average. It varies greatly 
in character with location. It is somewhat dwarfed in some 
sections, and in its extreme northern range may frequently 
be found small and of little value, except for fence posts, 
from which fact its common name no doubt arose. It pre- 
fers a dry, sandy soil. Unfortunately it does not appear to 
be willing to drop its lower limbs and grow tall and smooth 
far up from the ground, no matter how much it may be 
crowded by neighbors. What systematic forestry might 
bring about is uncertain. The shape of the leaf of the Post 
Oak is peculiar. From the stem to about one half its length 
it closely resembles that of the White Oak. It then broad- 
ens and from there on to the point its shape is substantially 
the same as that of the Chestnut Oak. 

The wood is heavy, hard, strong, close-grained, and dur- 
able in contact with the soil. Its annual rings are well 
marked, and there is a broad distinction between spring 
and summer wood. Its medullary rays are numerous and 
quite conspicuous, causing it, together with the color of the 
wood, to resemble White Oak closely. The heartwood varies 
in color from light to dark brown, with a thick and lighter- 
colored sapwood. It is difficult to season, checking badly 



CHINQUAPIN OAK 245 

when drying. Were it not for this feature it would prove 
a good substitute for White Oak for furniture, interior 
finish, and tight cooperage. It is mainly used for railroad 
ties, general construction, fencing, and fuel — sometimes 
for heavy carriage and wagon work. 

It is altogether probable that its artificial propagation, 
except by seed planting, will not be successful if attempted, 
its tap-root making removal from the nursery a very difii- 
cult task at best. At all events, it should be undertaken with 
caution. Reproduction can surely be brought about by gath- 
ering and planting the acorns as recommended for White 
Oak. However, as White Oak can be grown in much of the 
territory where Post Oak flourishes, the former should be 
planted there in preference. Still, as Post Oak will grow 
in poorer soil than White Oak, care should be taken to grow 
it there, and a proper selection of the ground made. 

Chinquapin Oak : Yellow Oak : Quercus acuminata 

This is another of the White Oak class with leaves 
largely resembling those of the Chestnut, and varying but 
little from the leaves of the Chestnut Oak ( Q. prinus). 
They gradually taper to an apex, hence the botanical de- 
signation acuminata. Its natural range is substantially the 
same as that of the Chestnut Oak, except that it extends 
farther west, invading Kansas. It is by no means of uni- 
form growth, and in some localities is somewhat dwarfed. 
Its best development appears to be on limestone soils in the 
Mississippi Valley, where it flourishes on ridges and hills 
as well as on rich bottom lands and rocky banks of streams. 
It is not frequently found in the Atlantic States, but is 
quite common west of the Alleghany Mountains, extending 
from there to Kansas. When growing in its favorite soil 
the tree sometimes reaches a height of one hundred and 
twenty feet with a diameter of four feet. It is light-demand- 
ing, and therefore will grow tall and free from limbs to a 
great height if crowded when young. 



246 WHITE OAK CLASS 

The wood is very heavy, hard, strong, and durable, fairly 
close-grained, but not tough. There is a distinct difference 
between spring and summer wood and the annual rings are 
easily distinguished. The medullary rays are thin and by no 
means prominent. The color of the heartwood is a light 
yellow brown, with sapwood still lighter in color. It is used 
for substantially the same purposes as White Oak, although 
not as acceptable for cabinetwork and interior finish, nor 
for tight cooperage, as it checks badly when drying. 

If propagation is attempted it should be along the lines 
laid down for White Oak, as it has a tap-root. It ripens 
its seed in one year. It is not a rapid grower, and in many 
localities not equal to the White Oak, and if the latter will 
flourish where this one will, it would best be planted in its 
stead. The tree should not be confounded with Black Oak, 
which is sometimes called Yellow Oak. That is of the Ked 
Oak class. Its name " Chinquapin " is a misnomer, for the 
Chinquapin belongs to the Chestnut family. 



RED OAK CLASS 

Of the Red Oak class there are but few of the twenty- 
four different species in the United States which may be 
considei'ed of sufficient importance to warrant undertaking 
their cultivation. These few, however, may well demand 
attention. They are Red Oak (^Quercus ruhra)^ Swamp 
Spanish Oak (^Quercus x>o,godcefolia). Black Oak (^Quer- 
cus velutina)^ and Pin Oak (^Quercus palustris). There 
are some others which might be profitably propagated in re- 
stricted locations where better species will not grow and 
prove of value, but their ranges are limited. 

The Red Oaks, with two insignificant exceptions, re- 
quire two years to perfect their fruit. The bark and leaves 
are so unlike those of the White Oak class that there is no 
difficulty in determining their character or where they be- 
long. It is not always easy, however, to decide, by the 
shape of the leaf, which one of the Red Oak class a tree 
may be, for it is not infrequent that two, and sometimes 
three, leaves quite differently formed may be found on the 
same tree. The wood of the Red Oak very much resem- 
bles that of the White Oak, but it does not require the 
knowledge of an expert to determine to which class it 
belongs. 

Red Oak : Quercus rubra 

Not until within the last fifteen or twenty years was this 
tree considered of much value, because of the superiority 
and cheapness of its more important relative the White 
Oak. As the supply of that wood waned and the price rose, 
attention was turned to the large, vigorous trees of Red 
Oak from which wide lumber could be cut. It was at last 
discovered that the tree has many good qualities. It is a 
rapid grower — the most so of all the Oaks — and it lives 



248 RED OAK CLASS 

long and grows to a great size. It is hardy, will grow tall, 
straight, and free from limbs if crowded in early life. It 
can be transplanted when young with fair success, and, in 
addition to its value for lumber, there is considerable tan- 
nic acid in its bark. So many good qualities does it possess 
that it is largely planted in Europe and is deemed equal to 
any of the Oaks there grown. 

Its range is from Maine to Minnesota and southward to 
Kansas, Alabama, and North Carolina, and along the At- 
lantic Coast northward. In the region of its best develop- 
ment — which is in the central and southern portions of 
the Northern States — it has been frequently found one 
hundred and twenty-five feet high, and even more, with a 
stem six feet in diameter. It is the smallest in the extreme 
northern limits. It thrives well in glacial drift, in the car- 
boniferous formations, and in alluvial deposits, but prefers 
an easy slope of hillside and a well-drained soil. The 
rapidity of its growth is much affected by the character of 
its surroundings and soil. Frequently lumber cut from it 
will show a slow growth and in other cases a very rapid 
one. Dr. J. T. Rothrock, in his report as Commissioner of 
Forestry of Pennsylvania, for 1895, relates that he counted 
the annual rings in a Red Oak tree which was just four 
feet in diameter and found only one hundred and eighty. 
That averaged twenty-six hundredths of an inch per an- 
num, or substantially one eighth of an inch of annual 
layer. It thrives well in practically pure stands or mixed 
with other broadleaf trees and with Hemlock, but it is 
generally found with other Oaks and Chestnut. It is emin- 
ently a light-demanding tree. When grown in the open, it 
will branch out low down and throw out limbs which grow 
large and spread out nearly horizontally ; but if crowded in 
early life the tree will push upward until it gets light or 
die in the attempt. In dense growth the stem is slightly 
tapering and generally straight. 

The wood is heavy, hard, strong in rapidly growing 
trees, but generally brittle in old or slow-growing ones, 



RED OAK 249 

coarse-grained, seldom tough, and has well-marked annual 
rings, showing plain distinction between spring and sum- 
mer growth. The heart wood is light brown or red with 
rather thin, darker-colored sapwood. The medullary rays 
are neither so broad nor so conspicuous as in White Oak. 
There is considerable tannic acid in the wood. The wood 
is not durable when exposed to the weather or in contact 
with the ground. It is easy to work, takes a good finish 
when the pores or ducts are filled, but is quite given to 
checking when seasoning; but this can be largely obviated 
by proper piling. It takes glue well, but, as with all other 
woods, heartwood should be joined to heartwood and sap- 
wood to sapwood. It is used for interior finish, furniture, 
some kinds of cheap cooperage, general construction, and 
even clapboards and shingles. When chemically treated, it 
makes a very good railroad tie, especially if the tree from 
which it is cut is healthy and vigorous. Several railroad 
companies are planting it for that purpose with a view 
to treating it chemically. It has its defects. One is that 
cracks will frequently be found in large trees reaching 
from the centre quite out to the sapwood and running from 
the ground twenty or thirty feet upward. Unless properly 
placed on the mill carriage the saw cuts across these checks 
and spoils more or less lumber. Another defect is that old 
trees are infested with worms the same as old Chestnut. 

Red Oak sprouts from the stump quite freely, and if 
properly cared for, natural reproduction will take place 
after a fashion, but, as with other trees that throw up 
sprouts, the second generation will be so weakened as to be 
of little value. Sprouts of Red Oak rarely attain a size 
suitable for the saw and are almost invariably more or less 
decayed at the butt. This is the experience of practically 
all lumbermen who have harvested such growth. 

The tree is a prolific seeder, bearing large acorns, which 
are so bitter and so highly charged with tannin that few 
animals will eat them. They require two years to mature. 
Propagation by planting the acorns where the trees are to 



250 RED OAK CLASS 

stand, or sowing them in a nursery and transplanting them 
into the forest when two or three years old, is entirely feas- 
ible. While it develops a rather conspicuous tap-root, it 
will, like the White Ash and several other trees, suffer its 
removal in early life without seriously checking its growth, 
for it naturally takes on lateral roots as it passes out of 
babyhood. If young trees are grown in the nursery, — and 
that is what is done to a great extent in Europe, — they 
should be taken out of the seed-beds at the end of the first 
year's growth, the tap-root removed, and the little trees set 
in the transplant nursery, there to remain for one or two 
years, when they can be removed to the forest without 
much loss ; or, if conditions are favorable, they can be set 
out in the forest when only one year old. At that age they 
average eight inches in height. 

Notwithstanding the fact that the tree can be success- 
fully transplanted when young, planting the acorns where 
the trees are to grow, as with White Oak, is preferable if 
the ground is not too densely covered with bushes, grass, 
or weeds. This is less expensive and saves at least two 
years' time in tree-growth. To guard against failure to 
germinate, two or more acorns should be planted in each 
place. If set out or planted as a pure stand, — no other trees 
mixed with them, — six by six feet apart would be a good 
distance, and at the final thinning they could be left eighteen 
feet apart, or a few more than one hundred and thirty to 
the acre, which would be a close stand for mature Oaks of 
any kind. 

All things considered, the tree is eminently worthy of 
propagation, and care should be taken to protect all now 
growing and efforts put forth largely to increase the stand. 
If the seeds are planted in the fall — in that case there is 
little danger of animals disturbing them — it should be 
done early, for the acorns frequently sprout soon after fall- 
ing from the tree. If stored until spring, they should be 
stratified in sand and kept in a cool place and planted as 
early as possible. 



BLACK OAK 251 



Black Oak : Quercus velutina 

The common names given to most trees appear to arise 
from some peculiarity of appearance either in bark, leaves, 
or wood, and the Black Oak is no exception. It was called 
Black Oak, no doubt, from the dark color of its dead bark, 
which, however, is not always black but sometimes brown, 
and on many trees only a dark gray. If examination should 
be made of its live inner bark, another name could be very 
properly given it, — and it has been, — and that would be 
" Yellow Oak." However, it is known as Black Oak in 
twenty-five states of our Union, and by that name it should 
be called, notwithstanding that its inner bark is yellow and 
the lumber dealer persists in calling it Red Oak to his 
customer. This tree should not be confounded with another 
Oak called "Black Jack" (^Quercus marilandica)^ which 
may be found more or less spread over much of the terri- 
tory in which the former grows. An inspection of the 
inner bark will at once determine whether the tree is the true 
Black Oak under consideration. Many times Red Oak is 
called Black Oak, simply because its outer bark is dark 
colored, and it is quite difficult to determine between them 
by general outward appearance or by the character of the 
wood . 

A line running along the coast from southern Maine to 
Florida, thence along the Gulf to eastern Texas, from there 
north to Wisconsin and then to Maine, would inclose the 
region of its natural range. Its best development may be 
found in southern New England and the central portions 
of the Middle States. In some localities it is much dwarfed. 
It is quite exacting as to character of soil and location. It 
prefers rich, well-drained bottom lands, but will grow well 
on fertile uplands and hillsides. It does not thrive on dry, 
sterile soil. It sometimes reaches a height of one hundred 
and twenty-five feet, with a stem four feet in diameter, but 
such trees are not common. It is not a rapid grower, but 



252 RED OAK CLASS 

lives to a good old age. Its branches are slender when 
close-grown and even then form a somewhat open crown. It 
will grow tall and slender when crowded, as it is a moder- 
ately light-demanding tree, but when grown in the open it 
has a stocky, rapidly tapering stem, with wide-spreading 
limbs from the ground up, and forms a round crown. No 
other Oak produces so many differently shaped leaves on 
the same tree as this. So far as its leaf form is concerned, it 
apparently has not decided what one to adopt exclusively. 

Its wood is strong, heavy, and hard, but not tough. It 
is more durable than Red Oak, but not equal to White 
Oak, and it checks when seasoning. The heartwood is light 
brown, somewhat tinged with red, with lighter-colored and 
rather thin sapwood. It is coarse-grained, and its spring 
and summer wood easily distinguished. The medullary rays 
are thin and inconspicuous for an Oak. It is used for nearly 
all purposes for which Red Oak is suitable. 

Formerly its inner bark was in considerable demand, as 
au extract of it was largely used as a yellow dye. It bore 
the name of " quercitron " and was a distinctive article of 
commerce, and the tree was consequently called Quercus 
tinctorium. The inner bark is rich in tannin, astringent, 
and extremely bitter. 

It is tap-rooted, and so far as can be ascertained stub- 
bornly so. While no experience in propagating can be 
pointed out, it is safe to say that it can be accomplished 
far better by planting the acorns where the trees are to 
grow than by any other method ; and planting young 
trees from the nursery would not be likely to succeed. It 
does not sprout freely. It is a fairly good seeder with not 
very large acorns, which are intensely bitter and astringent, 
and they require two years to mature. Should cultivation 
be undertaken, the acorns should be gathered and treated 
the same as recommended for other Oaks. Since the intro- 
duction of aniline dyes, the value of the tree has been 
greatly lessened, and attempts at its propagation would be 
warranted only where no better trees can be grown. 



SPANISH OAK 253 



Spanish Oak: Quercus pagodcefoUa 

This species of the Red Oak class can be found from 
southern New Jersey to Florida and through the Gulf 
States to eastern Texas, Arkansas, southwestern Missouri 
to middle Tennessee and Kentucky and northern Illinois 
and Indiana. It is very generally called Spanish Oak, es- 
caping, as many have not, a multitude of strange names. 
Its best development is along the swamps of the Mississippi 
River, in the Yazoo basin, and in eastern Arkansas, where it 
grows to be one hundred feet high and five feet in diameter, 
quite clean of limbs for forty or fifty feet, and is one of the 
important timber trees of those localities. It prefers rich 
bottom lands and alluvial banks of streams, and does not 
seriously object to the borders of swamps too wet for many 
other trees. Like all other Oaks it demands light, and 
must be grown in a crowded situation until it reaches 
nearly or quite its natural height-growth, when it will form 
a comparatively small crown ; but when grown in the open 
it will throw out limbs low down and form an ojien and 
wide-spreading crown. 

The wood is largely used in place of White Oak and is 
probably among the best of the Red Oak class for some 
purposes. The heartwood is light red with a tinge of brown 
and the sapwood is thin and nearly white. The annual 
layers are very distinct, the summer wood being much 
more compact than that of spring, with few but conspic- 
uous medullary rays. The greatest obstacle to its general 
use lies in the difficulty in seasoning it, as it checks badly. 
Were it not for this defect, it could, no doubt, be made a 
substitute for White Oak in tight cooperage. It is used to 
some extent for oil barrels, largely for general construc- 
tion work, and also for furniture and interior finish, and in 
each case as a substitute for White Oak. 

It cannot be ascertained that any effort has been made 
looking to its propagation ; but it would, no doubt, be sue- 



254 RED OAK CLASS 

cessful in its natural habitat, as it is a moist-ground tree 
and may not seriously object to the destruction of such 
tap-root as it possesses. Yet nothing but experiment can 
determine that. There can be but little doubt that plant- 
ing acorns would be successful. These require two years 
to mature. It generally makes a fairly good growth, but 
sometimes a rapid one for an Oak. 

There is another species of Oak closely resembling Q. 
pagodcefolla, which for a time was considered only a va- 
riety brought about by soil conditions. Like the other it 
is commonly called Spanish Oak, but its botanical name is 
Quercus digitata. Its natural range is nearly the same as 
that of Q. pagodcefoUa^ but it grows on higher ground, 
and does not attain the same dimensions, nor is its wood 
as valuable, although quite like it in general appearance. 
Both Spanish Oaks are classed in the lumber market as 
Red Oak and the purchaser will not secure the best one 
by naming it, for the dealer may not know which he offers. 
The tree under consideration — Q. digitata — seldom at- 
tains a height of eighty or a diameter of three feet. The 
wood is used for coarse construction, fuel, and fencing, but 
is not as durable as that of the other species, nor is it as 
tough. The bark is rich in tannin. Undoubtedly propa- 
gation would best be undertaken by planting acorns. 

Pin Oak : Quercus palustris 

Pin Oak has several common names, but the one here 
accepted is more frequently used than any other. It does 
not rank very high as a timber tree, even among the Red 
Oak class, to which it belongs ; but for all that, it has some 
redeeming qualities. It is a rapid grower for an Oak, only 
the Red Oak excelling it. Being light-demanding, it will, 
when crowded, grow a straight, undivided stem, with com- 
paratively small limbs, but will persist in retaining many 
of them, though they may grow but very little in size. It 
does not attain the large dimensions of the Red, Spanish, 



PIN OAK 255 

or Black Oak, nor will it drop its lower limbs so completely 
when crowded. It is reported to have been found with a 
stem one hundred and twenty feet high and four feet in 
diameter. It takes on a pyramidal form of crown in the 
open, with the outer ends of its topmost branches elevated, 
the middle ones more or less horizontal, and the lower ones 
drooping, and forms a singularly beautiful ornamental 
tree, the most so of any of the Oaks. 

Its natural range is from southern New England to Wis- 
consin, south to Virginia, central Kentucky, and northern 
Arkansas. Its best development is in the valley of the 
Ohio. It flourishes in the rich, moist soil of river bottoms, 
along streams, and in the borders of swamps, but takes kindly 
to any fertile soil, and may be found quite abundant even 
on the slopes and summits of the Alleghany Mountains. 

The wood is heavy, strong, hard, tough in young trees, 
coarse-grained, and checks badly in seasoning. The heart- 
wood is a light brown, frequently variegated, with nearly 
white sapwood. Its annual rings are easily detected and its 
medullary rays are numerous and prominent. It is not gen- 
erally considered durable when exposed to the soil or 
weather, but its resistance to decay when used as a railroad 
tie appears to vary with the location or section of country 
in which it grows, for there are well-attested cases where 
it serves a very fair purpose. Whenever it can be secured 
without knots or season checks, it serves well for interior 
finish and furniture. Its general use is for cheap construc- 
tion, cheap cooperage, even shingles and clapboards, but 
it cannot serve a very satisfactory purpose for either of 
the latter. 

It is little given to sprouting, but is readily grown from 
seed, and is one of the very few Oaks that will bear trans- 
planting without seriously affecting its subsequent growth ; 
no Oak surpasses it in this respect. It is tap-rooted, but 
for all that, it is furnished with many fibrous roots and 
takes on lateral ones in early life. Possessing these features, 
it can endure having its tap-root removed without much 



256 EED OAK CLASS 

injury, and when that is done while young it quickly over- 
comes the shock. This being the case, propagation in the 
nursery is entirely feasible, although planting the acorns 
where the trees are to grow can be successfully carried out. 
If planted in the nursery the seedlings should be removed 
from the seed-bed when one year old and allowed to remain 
in the transplant bed for one or two years as conditions 
may dictate. The acorns require two years to mature. 
Gathering and caring for them should be the same as for 
other Oaks. When planted in the forest they should be 
spaced about five feet apart to kill off the lower limbs. 

Southern Red Oak : Quercus texana 

For economic purposes this is doubtless the most im- 
portant Oak in the Southern States. In character of wood 
it ranks equally as high as that of the Northern Red Oak 
(^Qiiercus ruhra)^ to which it is closely allied, and it is 
frequently found mingled with it in the southern forests. 
While no definite information relative to the remaining 
stand can be obtained, it is more than probable that it is 
greater than that of the Red Oak of the North. 

Its natural range extends from southern Illinois and 
Indiana down the valley of the Mississippi River to the 
Gulf, spreading out westwardly to the mountains of Texas, 
and eastwardly to Florida. Its region of best development 
is along the bottom lands of the Mississippi River, on land 
lying between the swamps and the adjacent higher ground. 
In Texas it grows on the low hills as well as along streams. 
Its forest companions are usually Red Gum, Elm, Cotton- 
wood, Ash, and Hickory. The tree is of magnificent pro- 
portions, frequently reaching a height of one hundred and 
seventy-five feet, with a diameter of over seven feet. Larger 
dimensions are reported. Like its Northern congener it is 
light-demanding and a rapid grower, and it is otherwise quite 
like that tree in general characteristics. Its leaves, however, 
more closely resemble those of the Scarlet Oak. 



SOUTHERN RED OAK 257 

The wood closely resembles that of the Northern Eed 
Oak ; is heavy, strong, coarse-grained in rapidly growing 
trees, hard, not durable in contact with the ground, with 
light, reddish brown heartwood, and rather thin, lighter- 
colored sapwood. Its medullary rays are not large. They 
are short and somewhat conspicuous, but are not considered 
an important feature, and much of the lumber cut is 
" plain " sawed. It is largely used for furniture, interior 
finish, — its coarse grain showing distinctly, — and general 
structural purposes for which such wood is suitable. It is 
quite difficult to season without checking. 

No information can be obtained of any attempt to cul- 
tivate it. Even natural regeneration is not allowed to take 
place. Like all Oaks it has a tap-root, but whether it is so 
prominent as seriously to interfere with transplanting can- 
not be ascertained. It matures its acorns in two years, and 
no doubt planting these would be successful. Evidently 
the same treatment as for other Oaks should be given it. 
As the natural habitat of the tree is on ground suited to 
cultivation, it is in the line of ultimate extinction unless 
measures are taken to plant it or to allow natural reforest- 
ation to take place. 



THE ASHES 

There are sixteen species of Ashes in the United States, 
but barely six of them produce merchantable lumber. These 
are White, Red, Green, Blue, Black, and Oregon Ash. In 
the lumber trade all but the last two are classed and sold 
as White Ash. This is not a strictly correct classification, 
for two of them — Red and Green — produce lumber some- 
what inferior to White Ash, while Blue Ash is superior for 
some purposes. Still, for most uses there is little practical 
difference in value and it cannot be claimed that there is 
much wrong done by this classification. Black Ash is classed 
alone, for its wood is widely different, although it is used 
for many purposes that the others are. 

White Ash : Fraxinus americana 

This species leads all others in value when quality of 
wood, size of tree, length of life, adaptableness to varying 
conditions of soil, and facility of propagation are considered; 
and probably there has been more White Ash lumber con- 
sumed in this country than of all the other species of Ashes 
combined. Its natural range is from Maine to northern 
Florida, westward, intermittently, to Minnesota, and, in some 
localities, across the Mississippi River into eastern Kansas 
and Nebraska, and its botanical range is, no doubt, greater. 
Its best development is claimed to be in the Ohio River 
basin. Very fine specimens were found in Pennsylvania, 
especially on the gentle slopes and along the streams of the 
Alleghany Mountains. It was there frequently seen from 
one hundred to one hundred and twenty-five feet high and 
four feet in diameter with a straight and slightly tapering 
stem, clean of limbs for fifty to sixty feet or more. It was 
never found in pure stands, but mixed with other broadleaf 



WHITE ASH 259 

trees, and sometimes where even White Pine and Hemlock 
were to be seen. It prefers a rich, moist soil, but not ex- 
cessively moist, yet it will grow in almost any that is neither 
very dry nor very wet. 

It is a light-demanding tree, and when grown in the open, 
branches out low down and forms a symmetrical round 
crown, with limbs largely destitute of leaves except at or 
near their extremities ; but when crowded from early life, 
it shoots upward, dropping all its lower limbs, and forms 
a tall stem which, when it reaches its vantage-point, breaks 
out into a round, open crown, with a few specialized 
branches. The stem sometimes shows slight bends from one 
side to the other, but soon coming back to the perpendicu- 
lar, unless interfered with in some way. An examination 
of the terminal bud will show how this may happen. There 
are three winter buds formed on the leader, and if injury 
comes to the central one, then one or the other, and some- 
times both, of the side buds will start forth to become the 
leader. In case both become leaders, then there will be a 
forked tree, but if only one attains that preeminence, then 
a bend will occur, and the new leader will assume an up- 
right direction. It is seldom that any serious injury comes 
to the lumber cut from such a tree in consequence of this 
peculiarity. 

It is a rapid grower for the first fifty to seventy-five or 
even eighty years of its life, varying, of course, from sup- 
ply or lack of fertility, moisture, and depth of soil. During 
the first half of the last century several White Ash trees 
were set out on the Pennsylvania State Capitol grounds at 
Harrisburg, and when two of them were recently cut down 
to make room for the new building, they disclosed sixty- 
five annual rings in the stumps two feet above the ground, 
and were, respectively, twenty-two and twenty-two and one 
half inches in diameter inside the bark. The wood in these 
trees was remarkably strong and elastic. When not gen- 
erously given light, it grows less rapidly and the lumber is 
inferior in strength and elasticity. 



260 THE ASHES 

The rapidly grown wood is of great value for many pur- 
poses. For some uses it is superior to White Oak. It has 
long been celebrated for its toughness and elasticity. Homer 
armed his heroes of the Trojan War with ashen javelins 
and gave his sailors ashen oars. The average lumber cut 
from forest trees is hard, heavy, elastic, tough, strong, 
fairly close-grained, but showing distinct annual rings, 
with moderately plain distinction in density between spring 
and summer wood. The color of the heartwood varies in 
different trees from a light to a reddish brown, sometimes 
strangely marked with splashes of darker and varying color 
which run fantastically across the annual rings. The sap- 
wood is thick and light-colored. The medullary rays are 
small and inconspicuous. It is highly prized for agricult- 
ural implements, carriagework, automobile bodies, handles, 
— the coal miner prefers an ash handle for his pick to all 
other wood, — oars, and all purposes where strength and 
elasticity are required. It ranks next after Beech and 
Maple for fuel. It is not durable in contact with the soil, 
and the claim that it serves a good purpose for fence posts 
is not founded on experience. Lumber cut from it does 
not warp or check badly when properly piled, but logs cut 
from it should be painted at the ends or promptly sawed 
into lumber to avoid checks. It is quite long-lived, some- 
times reaching an age of two hundred and seventy -five 
years, but the wood in very old trees is liable to be brittle. 

While it will sprout from the stump when quite young, 
that method of propagation cannot be depended upon. Old 
trees never sprout. When grown in the open, it has been 
known to produce seed sparingly at thirty years of age. It 
cannot be relied on to produce seed oftener than once in 
three years, and sometimes will not seed more than once in 
five or six years, and, again, it has been known to bear seed 
annually for several years ; but in such cases the trees 
stood in the open and were old and showed symptoms of 
decay. As the White Ash is what botanists call dioecious, 
that is, the staminate flowers are borne on one tree and the 



WHITE ASH 261 

pistillate on another, there may be difficulty in securing 
fertile seeds. Unless the male and female trees stand close 
enough for the fertilizing pollen to be borne from the 
former to the latter, by winds or insects, there is no pos- 
sibility of fertile seeds being produced, — unless both kinds 
of flowers are borne on the same tree, which is a disputed 
point. There is no doubt but that this peculiarity accounts 
for so few seeds germinating, as nurserymen well know 
that not more than forty per cent can be depended upon 
to grow. 

The tree blossoms before the leaves are fully developed, 
and the seeds are ripe by the first of October. They should 
be promptly gathered and either sown at once, or cared 
for where they will not get very dry or become wet and 
mouldy. If allowed to dry, many seeds, though fertile, will 
not germinate until the second year after being sown. The 
seeds should be sown in the nursery in rows twelve inches 
apart, an inch apart in the row, and covered from three 
eighths to one half inch deep, with soil gently packed or 
rolled. The bed should be kept as uniformly moist as pos- 
sible until the plants are an inch or so high. By that time 
the roots will have penetrated the soil more than twice 
that distance and they can then endure dry weather fairly 
well. If conditions are favorable, the seedlings may be ex- 
pected to reach a height of from six to fifteen inches or 
more the first year, while the roots will have gone down 
two or more feet. This fact makes it necessary to remove 
the seedlings from the seed-beds when one year old, to se- 
cure the best results. They may be transplanted directly in- 
to the forest, but would best be placed in the transplant nur- 
sery for a year. As the tree throws out lateral roots early 
in life, no great injury comes from cutting off the tap-root 
some six inches below where the surface of the ground was 
when it stood in the seed-bed, providing the fibrous roots 
are abundant on the part to be left ; if not, the root should 
be left somewhat longer. Care should be taken in removal 
from the seed-bed not to destroy the fibrous roots, which 



262 THE ASHES 

may, and should, be left on, as the roots are easily broken 
at this age. 

Close planting in the forest is absolutely necessary to 
force the tree to grow tall and free from limbs. The United 
States Forest Service ^ recommends four feet each way as 
a suitable distance. This would necessitate early thinning, 
but if carefully looked after, that distance would, no doubt, 
be about right. At all events, it should not be much more. 

Much space has been given to this tree because of its 
intrinsic value as a timber tree. Next to the White Oak it 
is the most valuable of all the genuine hardwoods, and its 
propagation is not difficult, nor is there any reason why it 
should not be undertaken where conditions are favorable. 

Eed Ash : Fraxinus jyennsylvanica 

In many respects Red Ash resembles the more import- 
ant White Ash. The economic difference is that it does 
not grow as large, its wood is not quite as valuable, and it 
prefers a moister soil. The non-botanist can determine 
whether a tree is a White or a Red Ash by examining its 
twigs and leaves. If there should be found on the twigs, or 
underside of the leaves, a down, consisting of soft, short 
hairs, — called pubescence, — the tree may be set down as 
Red Ash. There is no distinction made in the lumber trade, 
but there should be, although for many purposes one is 
about as good as the other. It is mainly in elasticity that 
the White Ash is superior. 

The Red Ash grows in nearly all localities where the 
White Ash does, with its best development in the North- 
ern States and east of the Alleghany Mountains. West of 
these mountains it is not so common, or so large, and ap- 
pears to change in character. At its best it seldom attains 
a height of over seventy feet or a diameter of over twenty- 
two inches. It forms an irregularly shaped head when ap- 
proaching maturity. It is light-demanding and must be 

1 White Ash, Circular No. 84. 



GREEN ASH 263 

grown in close stands to produce the best results, although 
its lower limbs will die as it approaches maturity, even 
though the tree stands in the open. Its growth is not so 
rapid as that of the White Ash nor can it be considered 
a long-lived tree. 

The wood in thrifty trees is moderately strong, heavy, 
hard, coarse-grained, and liable to be brittle. The heartwood 
is a light brown, with thick sapwood slightly lighter in 
color and frequently streaked with yellow. It is difficult to 
distinguish the wood from that of the White Ash by its 
general appearance, and manufacturers and dealers may be 
deceived in it. He who desires a piece of tough, elastic 
timber is the one who will most likely ascertain which 
it is. 

As with the White Ash, the pistillate and staminate 
flowers are borne on separate trees, and the seeds are almost 
identical in appearance. The same care should be exercised 
in securing fertile seeds as is necessary for the White Ash, 
and propagation should be the same ; but as that tree is 
superior and will grow in nearly all localities where the Red 
Ash will, it certainly should be chosen in preference. Only 
in soils too wet for White Ash would good judgment indi- 
cate its adoption. 

Green Ash : Fraxinus lanceolata 

Whether Green Ash is a distinct species is an unset- 
tled question. Professor C. S. Sargent ^ notes that on going 
westward it is " connected with Red Ash by intermediate 
forms equally referable to either tree," and this being so, 
the natural inference would be that it is a modification 
brought about by soil and climatic conditions, and the 
probabilities are that such is the case. The principal eco- 
nomic difference is that Green Ash can better withstand 
the drier and colder climate of the Northwest. There is 
little difference in the character of the wood and both are 

^ Manual of Trees of North America, page 772. 



264 THE ASHES 

sold as "white ash." In consequence of its hardiness, it 
has a wider range than any other timber Ash. It is widely 
distributed, ranging from Massachusetts westward to the 
Continental Divide and southward to the Gulf of Mexico, 
but it is not very common east of the Mississippi Valley, 
and it is not to be found at all along the Atlantic Coast 
from Maryland to southern Florida. It is one of the few 
trees that will grow in the moist, warm climate of the 
Southern States and in the cold and dry regions of the 
North. This adaptableness to conditions makes it one of 
the most valuable trees for the Northwest, and it is supe- 
rior to all other Ashes there. Its ability to withstand the 
rigors of the climate far north of our northern boundary 
has led to its propagation in the Dominion of Canada hun- 
dreds of miles north of Montana. Its cultivation should 
be along the line laid down for White Ash, and the same 
care should be exercised in securing seed. There is no rea- 
son why it should not be planted where it is too cold or too 
dry for White Ash. While the wood is not quite equal to 
that of White Ash, it is a very good substitute. 

Blue Ash : Fraxinus quadrangulata 

There is still another Ash that produces good timber, 
in fact vies with all others of that family for quality, but 
it is by no means as widely distributed. It is known as 
Blue Ash, Fraxinus quadrangulata^ botanically so called 
because of the four-angled arrangement of twigs and limbs. 
It is known in the lumber trade as White Ash, and in this 
case the purchaser is in no sense wronged, for the quality 
of the wood is equal to the best White Ash, and probably 
the average is better. 

Its natural range is not fully determined. It may be 
found from Michigan and Iowa southward to northern Ala- 
bama and northern Arkansas. Its best development is on 
the hills bordering the Wabash River, and on the western 
slopes of some of the Tennessee mountains. It thrives best 



BLUE ASH 265 

on fertile limestone hills, but can be found on lower but 
rich ground. It is nowhere abundant. 

Sometimes the tree grows to a height of one hundred 
and fifteen feet, with a diameter of three feet, but such di- 
mensions are unusual. A height of seventy-five feet and 
diameter of two feet are more commonly found. The thick- 
ness of its annual rings shows it to be a fairly rapid grower, 
especially during the first seventy-five to one hundred years 
of its life. It is light-demanding, and when crowded throws 
up a smooth stem, slightly tapering, and free from limbs 
for more than half its height. In general appearance it 
closely resembles the White Ash, mainly differing from 
that tree in the character of its bark and flowers. Its bark 
is thinner and separates in large plate-like scales, and its 
flowers are perfect. 

The heartwood is strong, elastic, hard, and heavy. In 
color it is light yellow, mottled or streaked with brown, 
quite like the White Ash, and with very thick but lighter- 
colored sapwood. The tree frequently reaches the age of 
seventy-five or eighty years before any heartwood is devel- 
oped. It is this sapwood that is deemed pf superior quality 
for carriagework, for fork, hoe, rake, and shovel handles, 
and for agricultural implements generally. It is moderately 
close-grained, and does not show a very marked distinction 
between spring and summer wood, and its medullary rays 
are inconspicuous. It is used for substantially all purposes 
to which White Ash can be put, while its hardness makes 
it good flooring. It is considered superior to all other Ashes 
in resisting decay when exposed. 

Commercial nurserymen have grown it for ornamental 
purposes and report no difficulty in doing so. It cannot be 
learned that any effort has been made to plant it in the 
forest. No doubt it should receive the same treatment in 
propagating it in the forest nursery and in removing it into 
the forest that White Ash demands. There need not be as 
great care exercised in gathering seed as for other Ashes, for, 
as stated, the flowers are perfect, and hence the two sexes 



266 THE ASHES 

are not borne on separate trees or even on separate limbs. 
Its good qualities will certainly justify earnest efforts to 
grow it on soils suited to it, and even to experiment with 
it on other than in limestone regions, for it may thrive on 
others if fertile. 

Black Ash : Fraxinus nigra 

This tree stands alone in its class. It is essentially a 
swamp tree and flourishes best in the cooler sections of the 
country. Its range is from Maine to Virginia and westward 
to Minnesota. It will not thrive well on dry ground, and its 
successful cultivation can be carried on only in its chosen 
home, and as the location in which it will grow can seldom 
produce anything better it might be well to plant it there, 
as its wood is useful for many purposes. Its tendency is 
to grow tall, frequently reaching eighty or ninety feet in 
height, with a diameter rarely exceeding thirty inches, but 
sometimes reaching three feet. When grown in a fairly 
close stand it has but few limbs on the lower part of the 
stem, with slender upright ones at the top. " Burls," which 
may be cut into veneers and used for inlay work, frequently 
form on the otherwise clean portion of the stem. 

The wood is heavy, tough, coarse-grained, rather softer 
than that of the other Ashes, heartwood dark brown, with 
nearly white sapwood, and not durable when exposed to 
the ground. There is a marked difference between the 
spring and summer wood. There are numerous and coarse 
ducts in the former which permit the annual layers to be 
easily separated. This allows it to be split tangentially for 
hoops, baskets, and chair bottoms. Sometimes the annual 
layers are darkly veined. They are always prominent. The 
medullary rays are small, numerous, but not at all conspic- 
uous. Its general use is for cheap furniture and interior 
finish. 

The flowers and fruit are similar to those of the White 
Ash, except that the seed and wing of the White Ash are 



BLACK ASH 267 

larger. There is no information to be obtained of any effort 
to grow it for any purpose. Natural reproduction will pro- 
bably produce all that is required if allowed to take place. 
It sprouts quite freely from the stump, and reproduction 
could be brought about in this way, aided by sowing seed 
in moist places. 



THE HICKORIES 

There are twelve species of Hickories known to botan- 
ists and they are all indigenous to North America. None can 
be found growing naturally elsewhere. Eleven of them be- 
long to the United States, but only four of these are deemed 
of sufficient value as timber trees to be considered here. 
Large consumers place them in two classes and speak of 
them as Shellbark Hickory and Black Hickory, while the 
lumber trade calls the lumber cut from all of the valuable 
species " hickory," and by this general designation the 
consumer will not be wronged if lumber cut from no other 
species than the four hereafter considered is given him, 
although the class called Black Hickory is preferred by 
some carriage manufacturers. Only an expert is capable of 
distinguishing between the woods. For most purposes all 
four species are alike very valuable and have no competi- 
tors. For light carriage work there is no rival of Hickory. 
The beauty, lightness, strength, and superiority of carriages 
constructed of our best Hickories have never been attained 
by the use of any other wood, while for handles and all 
purposes where strength, combined with lightness, is desired, 
it is unsurpassed. All species rank first-class for fuel. Hick- 
ory is also largely used for smoking meat, the United States 
Forestry Bureau reporting that thirty-one thousand cords, 
or approximately twenty-two million feet, are annually de- 
manded by the four hundred and seventy-three packing 
establishments in the United States for smoking meat. 
This does not include what farmers use for the same pur- 
pose, which is quite likely as much more. Unfortunately 
there has been little or no attempt made to perpetuate the 
supply of this extremely valuable wood, and carriage-makers 
are facing a famine in it which will become acute within 
fifteen years, if not before. 



THE HICKORIES 269 

All the Hickories have pronounced tap-roots. This fea- 
ture seems to be essential, as none are able to overcome 
its destruction or serious injury. All attempts to transplant 
the valuable species of Hickory result in practical failures. 
They may grow in a feeble way for a time, but generally 
die in a few years, or, if not, never grow vigorously. Of all 
the Hickories only the Bitternut (^H'lcoria minima) — a 
tree of little value for lumber and none for fruit — can 
be successfully transplanted. In consequence of this feature 
no attempt to grow Hickories in a nursery and then trans- 
plant them into the forest should be expected to be success- 
ful. The nuts should be planted where the trees are to 
stand. They should be gathered as soon as ripe and at once 
planted ; or, if not convenient to do that at once, they 
should be stratified in a box with moist sand and placed in 
the ground with so slight a covering that freezing may occur, 
if possible. If thus kept, no time should be lost in planting 
in early spring. In no case should the nuts be allowed to 
become at all dry. If that occurs, even slightly, vitality will 
be impaired if not wholly destroyed. 

There are two species in the Shellbark class, Shellbark 
(^Hicoria laciniosa) and Shagbark (^Hicoria ovata). Each 
of these is indiscriminately called " Shagbark " and " Shell- 
bark " throughout nearly the entire range of their natural 
habitat, while the former (^H. laciniosa) should be called 
*' Shellbark " and the latter {H. ovata') "Shagbark." There 
is a botanical difference, but so far as economic features 
may be considered there is very little if any. The Shagbark 
has the rougher bark and produces the common hickory 
nut of commerce. The Shellbark has also a rough bark, 
but it is less so than the other, and the nut is smaller. 

The Black Hickory class is composed of the Mockernut 
{Jlicoria alba) and the Pignut {Hicoria glabra). There is 
little difference in the wood of these two trees. Only the 
former bears edible fruit. 

One species of Hickory, Hicoria -pecan., bears the well- 
known pecan nut. While practically worthless for timber, 



270 THE HICKORIES 

it is largely planted for its fruit in states south of southern 
Illinois, where the trees are grown from nuts from selected 
trees or from grafts cut from such trees. 

Shagbark Hickory : Hicoria ovata 

Like many another valuable timber tree this one is 
loaded down with a large number of strange and absurd 
names, several of which may be heard in localities not 
widely separated. It is not uncommon to hear it called 
Shellbark and Shagbark in the same vicinity. It is the 
largest of the valuable Hickories, only the Pecan exceeding 
it in size. It is ordinarily found from eighty to ninety feet 
in height and from twenty-four to thirty-six inches in 
diameter, while specimens showing one hundred and twenty 
feet in height, with a diameter of three or even four feet, 
are not very rare. 

Its natural range includes an area bounded by a line 
drawn from Maine to eastern Nebraska, and south to Texas, 
thence through northern Mississippi and thence northward 
to Maine, but not along the Atlantic Coast from Florida to 
New Jersey. Its best development is along the western 
slope of the Alleghany Mountains and in southern Ohio, 
Indiana, Illinois, Kentucky, Tennessee, and West Vir- 
ginia, but it is a vigorous grower from southern New Eng- 
land to Alabama. It grows best in a rich, moist soil, along 
sti'eams and around the borders of swamps, but does not 
show much lack of vigor on low, fertile hills or in moist in- 
tervales. The character of the soil seems somehow to affect 
the quality of the timber in all the Hickories. Studebaker 
Brothers, manufacturers of carriages, of South Bend, Indi- 
ana, write the author that " the best stock is grown only 
on clay lands with heavy limestone subsoil. Good Oak and 
Hickory are associated and usually grow of the same qual- 
ity in the same class of soil, and where Oak is inclined to 
be brashy and pithy, the Hickory is likewise." 

The ti'ee is light-demanding, and when grown in close 




GROUP OF HICKORIES - HICORIA GLAHKA l\ ( I \ IRE, SHAGBARK ON 

SIDES. MONTEREY, PUTNAM COUNTY, TENNESSEE 

Courtesy of U. S. Forest Service. 



SHAGBARK HICKORY 271 

proximity to other trees will show a straight, slightly 
tapering stem, clean of limbs, for fifty, sixty-five, or even 
seventy feet. In such situations it forms a narrow crown 
of rather small limbs. Occasionally a few specialized limbs 
will appear, but they seldom reach large dimensions. 
When grown in the open, its tendency is to maintain a 
straight, tapering stem, with many small limbs, f requentl}'- 
pendulous, forming a conical crown. As age creeps on, the 
lower limbs die and drop off. 

The wood is very hard and strong, heavy, close-grained, 
elastic, and tough. It is generally straight-grained, and 
can be easily bent for carriage work and like uses. The 
heartwood is light brown, with thin and nearly white sap- 
wood. The medullary rays are small and inconspicuous, 
and there is slight difference between spring and summer 
growth. The wood is not durable when exposed to the 
weather or soil. It has generally been thought that the 
heartwood is not as strong as the sapwood. Recent experi- 
ments by the United ' States Forest Service demonstrate 
that such belief is an error : it has been determined 
that there is no perceptible difference. The wood is used 
for agricultural implements, handles, all puri:)oses where 
strength and toughness are required, hoop poles, baskets, 
fuel, — for which there is nothing like it, — but most of all 
for carriage and wagon work, for which it has no equal nor 
is there any known substitute. 

Aboveground the tree grows rather slowly for the first 
four or five years of its life, but like all tap-rooted trees 
its roots go deep into the ground for food and moisture, and 
when these are secured it begins a vigorous stem growth, 
which it maintains well on towards old age, unless sup- 
pressed by other trees, or injured in some way. It sprouts 
quite freely from the cut stump when young, but seldom 
throws up any sprouts after reaching six or seven inches 
in diameter. This feature of sprouting when young makes 
cutting hoop poles profitable in some localities. Frequent 
cutting, however, enfeebles the root system, and it ceases 



272 THE HICKORIES 

to produce a good growth after two or three cuttings have 
been made. If allowed to grow it is seldom that a sprout 
reaches a size large enough for a sawlog before decay sets 
in. It is a fairly good seeder, and its fruit is promptly 
seized by squirrels, mice, and mankind; and when these 
consumers are at all numerous, there is little chance for 
natural reproduction. As the tree bears fruit quite early, 
— sometimes when only thirty years old, when growing in 
the open, — obtaining seed need not be a difficult task, if 
existing trees are cared for. The nuts should be planted 
six feet apart and the trees thinned as conditions indicate. 
The young growth being superior for handles, there will 
soon come a return for the money invested. Like the 
Black Walnut, the tree is profitable for both wood and 
fruit. 

Shellbaek Hickory : Hicoria laciniosa 

This tree closely resembles the Shagbark. In some local- 
ities it is known as the King-nut. Its form and habit of 
growth are quite similar and the quality of its wood is prac- 
tically the same. Its range, however, is less in extent, it being 
seldom found north of central New York or east of the Alle- 
ghanies. Neither does it extend as far south as the Shagbark. 
Its western limit is about the same. It also prefers a moist 
soil, being partial to rich bottom lands which are some- 
times flooded in spring. Probably its best development is 
near the large swamps and lowlands of the lower Ohio 
River basin and in central Missouri. It is one of the most 
common trees to be found there. 

The tree does not attain as great a diameter as the 
Shagbark, seldom exceeding three feet, but in height and 
general characteristics of stem and crown, it is substan- 
tially the same. The heartwood is somewhat darker than 
the Shagbark, but the sapwood is thin and nearly white. 
The wood is used for the same purposes. The casual ob- 
server can distinguish between the trees mainly from the 



MOCKERNUT HICKORY 273 

larger scales of the bark of the Shagbark, these frequently 
being three or four feet long, quite broad and thick, and 
more or less seamed vertically. 

The nuts are larger than those of the Shagbark, and the 
shell is thick and hard. They are edible. Caring for seeds 
and propagating should be the same in all respects as for 
other Hickories. As it naturally thrives in gi-ound fre- 
quently inundated for several weeks in the spring of the 
year, such locations should be chosen in which to grow it, 
especially as no other Hickory will thrive as well there ; but 
it will grow fairly well elsewhere if the ground is fertile. 

MocKERNUT Hickory : Hicoria alba 

Surely this tree has more than its share of names. 
There are fifteen in all, some of which are absurd and un- 
couth. Mockernut is the one most generally chosen and it 
is quite appropriate, intended, no doubt, to express the 
disappointment and disgust in the mind of any one who 
may think he has a large edible nut, but finds the seed very 
small. It is sometimes called " Big-bud Hickory," a name 
entirely in keeping with its peculiar winter buds. 

Its range extends farther south than any other Hickory 
that is valued for its wood, even reaching to the Gulf of 
Mexico. It may also be found as far north as Lake Ontario, 
but it is comparatively rare in the Northern States. Its 
best development is in the Ohio River Basin and in Mis- 
souri and Arkansas. In the South it is most common on 
sandy hummocks, but along the Gulf and in the South At- 
lantic States it is abundant on low ground next to the 
shores of bays and inlets. In the North it is mainly con- 
fined to low ridges. It appears to prefer soil that never be- 
comes very dry, although it may not be very fertile. Still, 
fertility is essential to a vigorous growth, and this is true 
of all the Hickories. 

Little need be said concerning the general characteris- 
tics of the tree, for they do not essentially differ from those 



274 THE HICKORIES 

of the other Hickories. It does not grow very tall, seldom 
reaching one hundred feet, — generally not over eighty- 
five, — and rarely attaining a diameter of three feet, usually 
not over two feet. Like the other Hickories it is light- 
demanding, and when crowded will send up a straight stem, 
clean, tapering, and free from limbs for one half its height. 

The wood is much like that of the Shagbark class, except 
that the heartwood is dark brown, and there is a thick and 
nearly white sapwood. This latter feature is responsible for 
its botanical designation, — alba, or white. In every respect 
the wood is equal in quality to that of the other Hickories, 
and the large percentage of white sapwood has, no doubt, 
caused consumers to prefer it to any other, although there 
is doubt if that feature adds anything to its value. 

As indicated, its fruit is practically valueless, owing to 
its thick shell and small size of kernel, — although it finds 
a ready sale with those who are not familiar with its charac- 
ter, — hence it must be grown for its wood alone. The nuts 
should be gathered and treated the same as noted for other 
Hickories and propagation be carried on along the same 
lines. 

Pignut Hickory : Hicoria glabra 

An absurd name seems to have been reached in the first 
attempt in the case of the Pignut Hickory, although it 
is called by several other names, frequently " Bitternut," 
which is both incorrect and confusing. It is not even a 
variety of H. minima, although, like that tree, it bears bitter 
fruit. Its range is from Maine southward to the Gulf States, 
and westward to eastern Kansas. It is most abundant in 
Missouri and Arkansas, and its best development is in the 
lower Ohio River basin. It prefers dry ridges and hillsides. 

The tree seldom reaches ninety feet in height, more gen- 
erally not over seventy -five. It is occasionally found three 
to three and one half feet in diameter, although it does 
not often exceed two feet. Demanding light, it sends up a 
slender stem, clean of large limbs, and forms a crown with 



PIGNUT HICKORY 275 

quite frequently crooked branches, but none of them greatly- 
specialized. Accident or the formation of two terminal buds 
causes the tree occasionally to fork and form a double top. 
This happens more frequently with this than with any other 
Hickory. 

There is practically no difference between uhe wood of 
this tree and that of the other Hickories described. It has 
a thick and nearly white sapwood, while the heartwood is a 
light brown. It is a good seed-bearer, and the same treatment 
should be given for its propagation as for that of the other 
Hickories. The nuts are variable in form, with small, bitter 
kernels, although in some localities not greatly so. As with 
the Mockernut, the tree must be cultivated for its wood 
alone. Its great value as a timber tree will justify that. All 
the Hickories should be planted six by six feet apart. 

No doubt there are some Hickories not here mentioned 
that may serve fairly well for many purposes, especially for 
fuel, but the important ones have been considered. 



THE MAPLES 

The family of Maples is a large one. There are between 
sixty and seventy species in the world — all but one of them 
belonging to the Northern Hemisphere — and thirteen of 
them indigenous to the United States, of which less than 
one half have any commercial value as timber trees. They 
are naturally separated into two classes : Hard Maple and 
Soft Maple. This division is based upon the physical char- 
acteristics of the wood of each, and it has been very pro- 
perly adopted by the lumber trade. 

While there are several species belonging to the Hard 
Maple class, there are but three that may be considered as 
rightfully belonging to the list of important timber trees of 
our country. These are Sugar Maple (^Acer saccharum, some- 
times called " Sugar Tree," " Rock Maple," and " Hard 
Maple ") ; Black Maple {Acer nigrum, generally called 
" Rock Maple ") ; and Broadleaf Maple (^Acer macrojjhyl- 
him, frequently called "Oregon Maple"). The last-named 
one is elsewhere described (page 354) when considering 
the broadleaf trees of the Pacific Slope. 

Of the Soft Maple class there may be named Silver Maple 
(^Acer saccharimim, generally called " Soft Maple "), and 
Red Maple (^Acer rubrum). 

Sugar Maple : Acer saccharum and nigrum 

Because of its widespread natural range, the well-known 
Sugar Maple is the dominant one of the Hard Maple class ; 
but the economic difference between this and the Black 
Maple is not great. What there is lies in the smaller size 
of the Black Maple and the slightly greater hardness of its 
wood. Both species may be accurately called Sugar Maple, 
but if either deserves the name of Hai-d Maple, it more 



SUGAR MAPLE 277 

consistently belongs to the Black species. As the habits of 
growth are almost identical and the methods of propagation 
entirely so, a consideration of the Sugar Maple will serve 
equally as well for the other and hence that plan is adopted. 

There is probably more diversity of form and habit with 
the Sugar Maples than there is with any other species of 
timber trees. In a plantation of fifty-one trees, about twenty- 
five years old, on the author's grounds, growing mainly in 
the open, there can be seen nine different forms of crowns, 
leaves, or bark. Still, they are all Sugar Maples, with not 
enough difference even to justify classing them as distinct 
varieties. There will be no difference in value of wood 
when cut. 

The natural range is along our northern border from 
Maine to Minnesota, south, through the Northern States 
and on the Alleghany Mountains, to northern Georgia and 
western Florida, and west to eastern Kansas and eastern 
Nebraska. There is a somewhat modified species in the 
Carolinas, northern Georgia, northern Mississippi, and 
some of the other Southern States, the wood of which is 
softer than that of the northern tree, and for hardness lies 
between that and the Soft Maple. The region of the best 
development of the Sugar Maple is central New England, 
New York, Pennsylvania, and the Great Lake states. 
Trees from one hundred to one hundred and twenty feet 
high and four feet in diameter, sometimes showing a stem 
fifty or more feet without a limb, are not at all uncommon. 
It flourishes best on well-drained soils, but thrives fairly 
well where the soil is not rich, if it is not too wet. It is 
most frequently found on low ridges, along the slopes and 
base of mountains and hills, and also on moderately dry 
intervales. It can endure some shade, but if grown in the 
open, it assumes a somewhat low, spreading, round, and 
quite dense crown. If grown in a close stand, it will send 
up its stem until sufficient light is obtained and then branch 
into a round crown with large limbs. 

The wood is heavy, hard, strong, close-grained, generally 



278 THE MAPLES 

straight-grained, and quite tough. The heartwood is usually 
a grayish brown, tinged with red. The sapwood is white 
and may have from twenty -five to even fifty or sixty an- 
nual rings. It is not unusual for a thrifty tree to reach the 
age of fifty years before any sapwood is formed. There is 
little distinction between spring and summer wood; the 
medullary rays are numerous, but small and inconspicuous. 
For some unknown cause the grain is sometimes contorted 
and mottled with little spots or knots, possibly undeveloped 
or adventitious buds. Such wood is known as "Bird's-Eye 
Maple." When the grain is contorted into waves it consti- 
tutes what is known as " Curled Maple." In the latter the 
waves are quite uniform and evenly repeated. Both these 
features — especially the former — add much to its value 
for cabinet and interior finish. Even when the fibre is 
plain, it is largely used for these purposes, and, fortunately, 
fashion does not dictate that it shall be tarnished with 
stain. It takes glue well and when well seasoned is little 
affected by moderate changes of humidity in the surround- 
ing atmosphei'C. Flooring manufactured from it has no 
superior if an equal for hardness and durability, and it is 
largely used for halls and other public rooms. It is also 
used for shoe-lasts, turnery, handles, and many other pur- 
poses where hardness and fine finish are demanded. It is 
not durable when exposed to the weather or soil. It is an 
excellent fuel and the resultant ash is rich in potash. When 
the forests were cut down to clear the land for farms, it 
was a common practice to save the ashes, where the logs 
were burned, from Maple and a few other hardwoods, leach 
them and boil down and calcine the lye in large cast-iron 
vessels called "potash kettles," when the product would 
be an impure carbonate of potash commercially known as 
*' pearlash." 

Only from the Birches is there so copious a flow of sap 
as from the Sugar Maple of the Northern States. If the 
sapwood is wounded in late autumn the flow sometimes 
manifests itself after a cold night that is succeeded by a 




SUGAR MAPLE 
Photographed by J. Horace McFarland. 



SUGAR MAPLE 279 

warm day, but the flow is greatest in late winter and early 
spring, ceasing as the buds swell. The trees are " tapped " 
and the sap gathered and evaporated, producing the well- 
known delicious maple sugar and syrup, a large amount 
of which is annually manufactured in the Northern States. 
The three or four outer annual layers of sapwood yield 
nearly all the sap, which contains more saccharine matter 
than flows from any other tree except Hickory, from which 
latter tree, however, there is a very slight discharge. 

It is a prolific seed-bearer after the age of thirty-five 
or forty years, but seldom produces any before that. The 
seeds ripen early in autumn and are so well known that a 
description of them is not worth while. They should be 
gathered as soon as ripe and stratified in moist sand — but 
by no means very moist — and kept in a cool place where 
they will not dry out. Freezing will not injure them. They 
can be sown in the seed-bed in late fall or early spring. 
Unfortunately the percentage of fertility is low, frequently 
not averaging twenty-five per cent ; hence they should be 
sown thick enough to compensate for that. At three or 
four years of age the plants can be transferred to the forest. 
It is doubtful whether transplanting in the nursery will 
pay, as the tree does not have a tap-root and has many 
fibrous ones. Only strengthening the root system would jus- 
tify it. It is not at all difficult to transplant. Plants can 
be frequently secured in the forests, where they may be 
found under the parent trees, and where, unless removed, 
they will eventually die from want of light. 

The tree is a moderately rapid grower after four or five 
years of age. In the Southern States, however, it makes a 
rapid growth from the very first. The tree lives to an old 
age, and in the forest is seldom seriously affected by in- 
sects or disease ; but in the open it sometimes is attacked 
by a species of borer. No information can be obtained of 
any attempt to grow it for lumber alone, — although largely 
planted as an ornamental tree, — but it can be safely as- 
sumed that it will thrive when set out in proper situations. 



280 THE MAPLES 

The distances apart at which the plants should be set should 
be from five to six feet, according to the character of the 
soil. As an ornamental tree it has no superior and few 
equals, but it cannot endure the smoke and dust of the city 
streets as well as the Oriental Plane and Norway Maple 
— both foreigners. 

Silver Maple: Soft Maple: Acer saccharinum 

This tree belongs to the Soft Maple class and is widely 
distributed throughout the United States, although seldom 
found near the Atlantic Coast. While it is known by some 
ten different names, it is generally called Silver Maple, 
from the silvery sheen of the underside of its leaves, and 
Soft Maple because its wood is softer than that of the 
Hard Maple. It is very variable both in form of growth 
and character of the lumber it produces, brought about, no 
doubt, through climatic and other conditions. There are 
two distinct varieties, besides several lesser ones — the latter 
not here considered. One has an open crown, with long, 
slender limbs, sometimes specialized, and with quite large 
indented leaves. This variety has large seeds. The other 
has a more compact crown, with limbs of moderate length, 
rather small leaves not deeply indented, and small seeds. 
The former is the more rapid grower. Both are light-de- 
manding, and in a dense stand will grow to a height of 
eighty or ninety feet, with a diameter of three feet. In the 
open, they develop a straggling crown, with specialized 
limbs, and a stem of four feet in diameter next the ground. 
The similarity of the two varieties is so great that they 
will be here considered as identical. 

Its best development is along stream banks where the 
soil is moist and rich. In such situations it grows to its 
greatest size. It does not attain a large size in high and 
dry situations, notwithstanding that it will persist, in some 
localities, in attempting to grow there. It is a nuisance in 
some places in the East, especially, on high, dry, cut-over 



SILVER MAPLE 281 

lands. It is an early and prolific seed-bearer and the seeds 
are readily scattered by the winds. Being a rapid grower 
when young, it shuts out or suppresses more valuable spe- 
cies. If injured in any way it is liable to throw up sprouts 
which never attain a large size. All this, however, gives it 
a value for the farmer's woodlot, and it is quite extensively 
planted in the prairie states, and farther west, for that 
purpose. 

The wood is moderately hard, but by no means as hard 
as that of Hard Maple. It is strong, close-grained, easily 
worked, but rather brittle. The heartwood is generally a 
dark brown — sometimes an umber color — and the sap- 
wood is nearly white and very thick. A tree seldom devel- 
ops heartwood before the age of fifty or sixty years. The 
sapwood is sometimes used for flooring when combined 
with some darker wood. Lumber cut from the tree is used 
for cheap furniture and many other purposes where not ex- 
posed to the ground or weather. It is especially adapted 
to turnery and is used for paper pulp. It is not a first-class 
fuel, but answers a fairly good purpose if well seasoned. 

It blooms in early spring and before the appearance of 
the leaves. The seeds, as soon as ripe, should be promptly 
planted, and in fairly good ground may be expected to 
make a growth of a foot or more the first year. The stam- 
inate blossoms may be on one tree and pistillate ones on 
another, or both on the same tree. If the latter is not the 
case, there is great danger that the seeds will be infertile. 
It is not a difficult tree to grow in the nursery or transplant 
into the forest. It may be set in the forest when one year 
old, but would better be left in the nursery another year. 
Its flow of sap is abundant, but it is low in saccharine 
matter. The trees should be planted from five to six feet 
apart. 



282 THE MAPLES 



Eed Maple : Scarlet Maple : Acer rubrum 

This tree is very common, and but few are as widely 
distributed east of the Mississippi Kiver. Its red twigs, 
red blossoms, and early red autumn leaves make it quite 
distinct from the Silver Maple, although in some localities 
its general appearance is such as has led to a confusion in 
the mind of the casual observer. Its natural habitat, how- 
ever, is in moister ground ; in fact, it is practically a swamp 
tree, although, like the Silver Maple, it, in some localities, 
proves itself a pest, and for the same reasons. Its wood is 
substantially the same as that of the Silver Maple and is 
used for the same purposes. No distinction is made in the 
market. Both are sold as " Soft Maple," and no one is 
wronged. If its cultivation is undertaken, it should be along 
the same lines as for Silver Maple, except that the ground 
chosen should be moister and more care exercised in gather- 
ing seeds, for it is more given to produce pistillate flowers 
on one tree and staminate on another. It blossoms early in 
the spring, — in some localities earlier, if anything, than 
the Silver Maple, frequently in March ; the seeds are ripe 
in May and should be promptly gathered and sown. Like 
the Silver Maple it is a rapid grower, especially in early 
life, and can be removed into the forest when only one year 
old, and like that tree it is a fairly good fuel ; its cultiva- 
tion for that purpose alone would be warranted, especially 
on ground too wet for better species ; but tlie cultivation for 
timber of neither the Silver nor lied Maple would be justi- 
fied anywhere if better species can be grown in the same 
locality. 



YELLOW POPLAR: TULIP-TKEE : 

Liriodendron tulipifera 

This valuable tree is generally called Yellow Poplar, or, 
less frequently, Tulip-tree. The latter is the most appro- 
priate name, for it is not a Poplar at all. It is one of the 
only two remaining representatives of many species which 
grew in long-past geologic times. One of these is indigen- 
ous to this country and the other to China. Notwithstand- 
ing that it is burdened with fifteen different names, — un- 
meaning and foolish, — • it is generally known in the lumber 
trade as Yellow Poplar. In some localities, however, the 
heartwood is nearly white and softer than in other regions, 
and to distinguish such from lumber generally cut from 
the tree, it is designated as White Poplar, or, more fre- 
quently, White wood. Just why the heartwood is nearly 
white in some localities and light yellow in others is not well 
understood ; but it probably arises from a difference in soil 
or climatic conditions, as there is but the one species here. 

A line bounding its natural range runs from Massachu- 
setts west to southern Illinois, thence south to eastern Ar- 
kansas and western Mississippi to near the Gulf of Mexico, 
from there to southern Georgia and along the Atlantic Coast 
to Massachusetts. It is the most abundant and of the best 
development in the valleys tributary to the Ohio River, 
and on the slopes of the mountains in North Carolina, 
Tennessee, Kentucky, and the Virginias. At their best 
Tulip-trees have been found ten feet in diameter and one 
hundred and forty feet high. Trees from three to five feet 
in diameter are not at all exceptional in virgin forests. It 
is not found in pure stands, but is mingled with other 
broadleaf trees, seldom among Pines and Hemlock. 

It is decidedly light-demanding, and when grown crowded 
will push up a smooth, straight, moderately tapering stem, 



284 YELLOW POPLAR 

until it fairly overcomes its competitors for light, frequently 
showing in adult trees seventy-five or more feet without a 
limb. When it attains a mastery in the struggle for light, 
it will develop large limbs instead of increasing in height ; 
but if overtaken by its neighbors, and the contest is re- 
newed, it will again mount upward and leave its ambitious 
large limbs to care for themselves or die. These will, in 
time, die and drop off, and decay in the main stem is likely 
to follow. When growing in the open, it forms a conical 
crown, the lower limbs reaching out so far that the base of 
the cone is nearly, or quite, as great as its height. Its lead- 
ing shoot, however, maintains its ascendancy and a forked 
tree is seldom seen. Here, as well as when growing among 
competitors for light, the foliage will mainly be found at 
the outer ends of the limbs, where it forms so dense a cov- 
ering that the twigs and small limbs there will die. 

The wood is soft, straight-grained, easily worked, not 
strong, and is more or less brittle according to age. It 
takes glue, stain, and paint well, no wood except White 
Pine rivaling it in the latter feature. In most trees the 
heartwood is a light yellow or brown, with thin, creamy 
sapwood ; but, as stated, in some sections the heartwood is 
nearly white, though not strictly so. There is little distinction 
between spring and summer wood. The medullary rays are 
small and inconspicuous. It is not durable when exposed 
to the ground. It is used for interior finish, furniture, and 
nearly all purposes for which White Pine is fitted. 

Unfortunately its propagation is difficult, owing to the 
fact that not over ten per cent, if so much, of its seeds are 
fertile, and it has fleshy roots with few fibrous ones, and, 
hence, is difficult to transplant successfully. It bears seed in 
great abundance and when quite young. One thirteen years 
old produced seed and has continued to do so for three 
successive years, although not abundantly until the last 
year. It sends up shoots from the crown of the roots. Some- 
times these make a strong and healthy tree suitable for 
the saw. 



YELLOW POPLAR 285 

It was claimed a few years ago that the tree could be 
propagated from cuttings the same as the Poplars and 
Willows. Repeated and varied efforts to grow it in that 
way have proved complete failures. Except such few as 
may come from sprouts, growing the trees from the seed 
must be the only method of propagation. The seed ripens 
in the early fall, but the cones do not open until the leaves 
are shed. As soon as the leaves turn yellow, the cones may 
be gathered, and when dry the seeds will fall from the 
cone stem. They would best be sown in the fall ; but if not 
they should be stratified in sand and kept in a cool place, 
one dry enough to prevent moulding, yet damp enough to 
prevent drying-out, and then be sown in the spring as soon 
as the ground will permit. It frequently requires two years 
for the seed to germinate. 

Yellow Poplar is remarkably free from insect enemies 
or disease of any kind. Decay of the stem from dead limbs 
is about the only malady affecting it. It should be added 
that great care has to be taken in felling large trees, be- 
cause of their liability to break when they strike the ground. 
It will grow in almost any fertile soil, if not too wet, and 
even in one so sterile as to be of little use for agriculture. 
Some fine specimens were found on the mountains of Penn- 
sylvania, where the ground was ill fitted for cultivation 
because of lack of fertility ; yet the tree will show high 
appreciation of a generous soil to grow in. Seedlings attain 
a height of about six inches the first year ; after that, the 
tree is a rapid grower until it reaches maturity. In order 
to secure fibrous roots, the seedlings would best be trans- 
planted into the transplant nursery when one year old and 
remain there two years, when they will be strong enough 
to hold their own against their surroundings in the forest. 

Lumber cut from good trees stands among the Soft- 
woods next in value to White Pine, and no effort should 
be spared to assist natural reproduction, — which is fairly 
good, if permitted, — and artificial cultivation should be 
undertaken notwithstandins: the drawbacks. 



CHESTNUT : Castanea dentata 

If our timber trees were classified according to tlieir 
economic importance and the profits which may arise from 
their cultivation, there is no doubt but that the Chestnut 
should be placed high in that list. It has been spared the 
infliction of a multitude of names. Only the red man ever 
deigned to call it anything but Chestnut. As always, he 
gave it a significant appellation — " 0-heh-yah-tah," mean- 
ing prickly burr. Under favorable conditions it is long- 
lived and grows to a large size. There are well- authentic- 
ated records of its having reached a diameter of eleven 
feet, but such a growth was found only in trees standing 
more or less in the open, and which did not attain a great 
height. When grown in a crowded situation, it has been 
known to reach a height of over one hundred feet, with a 
diameter of seven feet. The average size of mature trees 
in a virgin forest, on gi'ound not too dry, is between twenty 
and thirty-six inches in diameter, and eighty to one hun- 
dred feet in height. When found above two feet in diam- 
eter, it is quite frequently worm-eaten. When grown in 
close stands, it will produce a tall, straight stem, free from 
limbs for two thirds of its height, with slight taper ; but 
when grown in the open, it forms a low, round, but some- 
what irregular crown, and frequently has specialized limbs. 

It may be found from the southern part of Maine to 
Georgia, and from the Atlantic Coast westwardly to the 
Mississippi River, thence north to northern Michigan, and 
eastwardly through that state and on through New York 
and the New England States. Its best development is to 
be found in New England, New York, Pennsylvania, Mary- 
land, the west portion of the Virginias, North Carolina, and 
Tennessee. South of the Potomac River it is best at an ele- 
vation of about two thousand feet above the sea. It accepts 



CHESTNUT 287 

a variety of soils, — but not wet ones, — ranging from 
loose sand and decomposed shale to dry, rocky ridges and 
mountain slopes, but does not take kindly to limestone 
land. Neither does it demand a high state of fertility. It 
is a rapid grower until it reaches sixty or seventy years of 
age, when its lessening powers of growth become manifest 
in the gradually diminishing thickness of the annual rings ; 
yet, if not injured, it still retains enough vital force to 
maintain a moderate growth for centuries. Careful count- 
ing, in widely separated sections of the country, of the an- 
nual rings in hundreds of telegraph and telephone poles, 
whose length was forty feet, with a top diameter of not less 
than six inches, showed that their ages ran from forty-three 
to sixty-seven years, averaging a trifle over fifty-six. 

The wood is light, soft, coarse-grained, quite strong in 
young trees, but weak in old ones. Young growth is liable 
to warp and check when seasoning, but this can be avoided 
by proper piling. It splits easily, and in former times was 
much used for fence rails. It is durable when exposed to 
the weather or soil. The heartwood is a light reddish brown, 
with light-colored sap wood which seldom exceeds eight an- 
nual layers. There is a notable difference between spring 
and summer wood, and consequently the annual layers are 
very distinct and prominent. The medullary rays are 
scarcely discernible to the naked eye. Until within the last 
fifty years it was little used except for fence posts and fence 
rails. Now it is largely consumed for all sorts of posts 
entering the ground, and for railroad ties, interior finish, 
furniture, shingles, and general construction. Old and 
worm-eaten Chestnut is largely used for burial caskets, 
foundations for veneers for doors and panels, piano cases, 
and other like work; such wood being especially valuable for 
that purpose, as it neither shrinks nor warps when packed 
up, and takes glue well. Beyond all this, it is now largely 
used to furnish tannic acid for the tanneries, the whole 
tree being employed for that purpose, and large areas are 
being denuded in consequence. 



288 CHESTNUT 

Propagation can be carried on by sprout growth or by 
seeds. Above all others of our valuable timber trees, Chest- 
nut can best be depended upon to reproduce itself from 
sprouts. Other species will quite frequently throw up 
sprouts from the stump when the tree is cut, but none so 
uniformly or vigorously. If the stump is cut low, the sprouts 
will throw out roots and, in a measure, develop an inde- 
pendent root system. Old trees will proportionally send up 
more sprouts than young ones, but they will not be as vigor- 
ous. It is true that sprouts seldom attain sawlog size, but 
they will reach pole and tie dunensions if the root system 
has not been exhausted by frequent fires or cuttings. While 
we have had but little experience in repeated harvesting 
of sprout growth, observation shows that the root system 
of such growth is enfeebled by successive removal of the 
sprouts, and that eventually seed-planting must be resorted 
to if the forest is to be maintained in perpetual vigor and 
productiveness. It must be patent to every one that all 
superfluous sprouts should be removed in order to allow a 
vigorous growth in the few that are allowed to remain. 
The number left must be determined by conditions. If the 
original stand was dense, few should be permitted to grow, 
but there must be enough left to compel a tall and straight 
growth and develop a satisfactory forest floor. 

Propagation from seed is not at all difficult if rightly 
conducted. The tree is a prolific seed-bearer, and, more- 
over, bears seed when quite young, — frequently at the 
age of ten years, — and there is seldom any difficulty in 
securing a supply. It blossoms late in June or early in 
July, and the seed is ripe about the first of October, hence 
seed-bearing is not likely to be interfered with by frosts. 
The prickly envelope, commonly called burr, inclosing the 
seed, is too well known to demand a description. The nuts 
should be gathered as soon as they fall out of the burrs, 
and be at once planted where the trees are to grow in the 
forest, or stored away where they will neither dry nor 
become heated or mouldy. There are but few valuable 




CHESTNUT 

Photooraphed by J. Horace McFarland. 



CHESTNUT 289 

timber trees whose seed is so susceptible of injury as the 
Chestnut. Any drying, heating, moulding, or even wilting, 
will affect their vitality, and the sooner they are put into 
the ground after they are ripe the more certainty there is 
of success ; hence fall planting should, if possible, be car- 
ried out. Fall planting has only one drawback — the lia- 
bility of squirrels and mice digging up the nuts. If fall 
planting is not adopted, then the nuts should be stratified 
with sand, which must be moist but not very wet, and kept 
out of doors where they will be cool. Freezing will do no 
harm, but will be beneficial if the sand does not become 
dry. Planting where the trees are to grow is urged because 
they have a prominent tap-root which seriously resents be- 
ing interfered with, although there are laterals thrown out 
in early life which attain a large size in old age. But for 
all that, it is a deep-rooted tree, and it is seldom that one 
is blown down by the wind. It does not throw out lateral 
roots, however, until too large to be always successfully 
transplanted. By removing into the transplant nursery 
when one year old and carefully handling them, a portion 
can be made to grow, but it takes a long time for them to 
recover from the shock and become vigorous, an event 
which seldom occurs. 

It is light-demanding, and close planting is certain to cause 
it to grow tall and straight, and drop its lower limbs, and 
that system should by all means be adopted. But little plant- 
ing of Chestnut for timber-growing has been done in this 
country, and no exact rule can be laid down for the dis- 
tance apart that the young trees should be planted, but 
it will be safe to place them from five to six feet, and as 
soon as they become large enough for posts and poles, thin 
out as conditions may indicate. 

Its abundance, coupled with its ability to reproduce 
itself, has enabled it to meet fairly well the demand made 
upon it, but the great variety of uses to which it is now 
being put will soon cause a very rapid shrinkage in supply, 
and the promise for the future is not bright. Until re- 



290 CHESTNUT 

cently, Chestnut has suffered little from insect attacks or 
diseases of any sort, except that it is liable to be worm-eaten 
when old ; but in 1905 a fungus disease appeared on the trees 
on Long Island, and from there it has extended into Con- 
necticut, Massachusetts, New York, New Jersey, Pennsyl- 
vania, and Delaware. It is very contagious and fatal. No 
tree has been known to recover when once attacked, and 
there is no known remedy, and none may ever be found. 
Borne on the winds and the feet of birds, or by insects, 
the spores of the fatal fungus lodge in every crevice and 
crack in the bark where it is possible for them to find 
their way into the living tissues of the cambium layer, 
whence it extends to the entire tree. The spores multiply 
with wonderful rapidity, and the end of the tree's life is 
soon reached. In some cases the tree dies the first year, 
and but few survive the second. It is a very serious mat- 
ter, and may rob the country of one of its most valuable 
timber trees. Pennsylvania has appropriated two hundred 
and seventy-five thousand dollars to combat it. A conven- 
tion was held at Harrisburg, February 19, 1912, to provide 
for concerted action to suppress the malady. It was at- 
tended by over two hundred delegates, representing not 
only the forestry departments of several states and the 
United States Forest Service but also the New York Agri- 
cultural Experiment Stations and such educational institu- 
tions as Yale, Harvard, Cornell, Lehigh, and Pennsylvania 
universities and the Pennsylvania State College. Little 
hope was held out that a remedy could be found. All that 
is being done thus far — aside from ascertaining the bound- 
aries of the disease — is confined to cutting down infected 
trees and burning all parts not used for lumber or other 
purposes. The fatality of the disease and its rapid spread 
indicate that planting would not be advisable, certainly not 
until a remedy can be found. 



BLACK CHERRY: WILD CHERRY: Prunus 
serotina 

In most sections of our country people have been content 
to call this tree by the above names — mainly the first. In 
two states, however, it has been given the name of Rum 
Cherry, quite suggestive of the use to which the fruit is 
now and then put in adding flavor to certain alcoholic 
beverages. In the lumber trade it is designated as " Cherry," 
and as it is the only species out of a half-dozen in this 
country from which lumber is cut, there can be no 
criticism. But the same cannot be said of the furniture 
manufacturer who stains the several species of Birch and 
palms them off as Cherry ; or, if his conscience rebels, will 
give them the name of Cherry Birch. It is true that the 
heartwood of old Black Birch trees much resembles in color 
and appearance Black Cherry, and if the Birch did not 
warp and spring when subjected to changes in humidity, 
it would serve as a fair substitute. 

The natural range of Black Cherry covers quite the east» 
em half of the United States, — practically all east of the 
one hundredth degree of west longitude, — but it is not 
common along the coast region. It reaches its best develop- 
ment along the northern portion of the Appalachian Moun- 
tains. Probably the largest and best trees were found on 
the slopes and along the streams of the Alleghanies. Trees 
one hundred feet high and four or five feet in diameter 
were often found there, although the average diameter of 
mature trees did not much exceed two feet. Grown in the 
open, it branches out low down, and, as years go on, large 
specialized limbs are formed and the tree is practically worth- 
less for lumber ; but forest-grown, it shoots up a tall, 
smooth, straight, and slightly tapering stem without limbs 
for more than half its height. 



292 BLACK CHERRY 

As it was found growing on rich alluvial soils and fertile 
slopes, it suffered destruction in early days for the same 
reason that Black Walnut did, — it was in the way, — and 
like that tree it was burned or split into rails. It was soon 
discovered, however, that it was one of the best woods for 
furniture. In early times it was used more for that purpose 
than Black Walnut, and to-day it stands second for such 
uses only to that tree among our native woods, while in the 
minds of many it is not deemed inferior ; but like that tree 
it is close on to extinction. 

It thrives best in a moist, rich soil, although it will grow 
quite well on a dry and loamy one which is neither fertile 
nor moist. To aid its growth in such soils, it has a large 
root system which runs deep into the ground, and it like- 
wise throws out large and long lateral roots near the sur- 
face. In soils adapted to its best development, it is a rapid 
grower in early life, but as age advances its annual accre- 
tions grow less and less, even under the most favorable 
surroundings. Unless the situation is suitable, it soon be- 
gins to show signs of declining vigor and is then not a 
long-lived tree, but when the soil and surroundings are ac- 
ceptable, it has been known to reach three hundred years 
of age. It was nowhere to be found in great abundance, 
but was mixed with other broadleaf trees, with occasionally 
a grove of a scoi-e or more of its own kind within a radius 
of a few hundred feet. 

The wood is light, easily worked, fine-grained and strong 
in young trees, but somewhat softer and weaker in old ones, 
straight-grained, with little difference between spring and 
summer wood, and with small and inconspicuous medullaiy 
rays. The heartwood is reddish brown, with thin, yellowish 
sapwood which seldom consists of over ten annual layers. 
It does not warp or split in seasoning, and " stays to its 
place " when put in trying situations. It takes glue well, 
and has a fine satiny finish and grows darker and richer 
in color with age. Its use is mainly confined to furniture, the 
interior of passenger cars, interior woodwork generally, and 




BLACK CHERRY, NORTH CAROLINA 

Courtesy of U. S, Forest Service. 



BLACK CHERRY 293 

to other cases where wood is wanted that will neither warp 
nor shrink. Young and vigorous trees have lasting qualities 
when exposed to the ground, and railroads are paying as 
much for black cherry ties as for white oak. It has long 
been used for fence posts, and this has led to the destruc- 
tion of much young growth. 

The tree is a good seeder, and there is frequently a large 
yield of fruit, the pulp of which has a sweet, aromatic 
taste. It has been known to bear fruit in the open at 
seventeen years of age. The seed proper is small with a hard 
shell, like that of all Cherries, and natural seed-sowing is 
almost entirely carried on b}'^ birds dropping them, although 
squirrels and mice aid to a limited extent. Notwithstand- 
ing that the tree has a tap-root, it can be safely transplanted 
when young ; hence it is entirely suitable for nursery pro- 
pagation. If the young plants are vigorous, they may be 
removed to the forest when two years old but would best 
be transplanted into the nursery when one year old, remain- 
ing in the transplant nursery for two years, then to be set 
out in the forest. The fruit ripens about the first of Septem- 
ber and should be at once gathered and cared for. If there 
is no danger of squirrels or mice destroying them, the seeds 
should be planted in the nursery at once. In such cases the 
pulp may be left on, although its removal will allow the 
seeds to be planted with a drill. If the planting is to be 
delayed until spring, then the pulp should be removed and 
the seeds should be stratified in moist sand and stored away 
where they will remain moist, but, if possible, be subjected to 
freezing, and then planted as early in the spring as possible. 
They should be placed in rows about eight inches apart 
and covered from three eighths to one half inch deep, and 
thereafter be treated the same as other broadleaf seedlings. 
In no case should the seed be allowed to become dry. The 
seedlings ordinarily make a growth of six inches the first 
year, and if not removed may grow eighteen or twenty 
inches the next. 

As the tree is somewhat capricious in choosing its loca- 



294 BLACK CHERRY 

tion, care should be taken in selecting ground for Its cul- 
tivation, notwithstanding the fact that it will grow in many 
soils and that its botanical range seems to be great. Old 
residents can still be found to tell where it once grew to 
perfection, and no mistake can be made if such locations 
are chosen. When planted in the forest there should be a 
crowded stand, either with its own or other species of equally 
rapid growth. It lives to a greater age when so surrounded 
than when out in the open. It is naturally associated with 
Beech, Oak, Hickory, Maple, Birch, and Yellow Poplar, 
but it is a more rapid grower in early life than any except 
the Poplar.^ 

In suitable situations and when cared for, there can be 
few more valuable trees found ; but with all its good quali- 
ties it has some drawbacks. One is a caterpillar that makes 
its nests in the branches and sometimes entirely denudes 
the tree of its leaves. Another is what is called " gum 
specks." These are deposits of gum in the wood which some- 
times disfigure it to a slight extent. When wounded the 
sapwood will exude a gum something like gum arabic. It 
has bitter aromatic bark and leaves. These contain the 
well-known poison called prussic acid. Cattle have been 

^ The United States Forest Service (Notes on Forest Trees suitable for 
planting in the United States — Black Cherry) gives the following account of 
the growth of two plantations : — 

" In a block planted in 1878, containing 196 White Ash, 27 Catalpa, and 
7 Black Cherry trees, the Cherry, when measured in 1901, was the largest, 
both in diameter and height. The following was the average size of the 
trees : — 

Average diameter at 1 foot from the ground 8.4 inches 

Average diameter at 7 feet from the ground 6.4 inches 

Average height 34.0 feet 

Average clear length of bole 19.0 feet 

" In another block containing 149 Black Cherry and 187 Catalpa trees, 
the latter were entirely dominated by the Cherry. The average size of the 
Cherry was : — 

Average diameter at 1 foot from the ground 5.6 inches 

Average diameter at 7 feet from the ground 4.0 inches 

Average height 32.0 feet 

Average clear length of bole 19.0 feet" 

As the Catalpa is a notoriously fast growing tree, it would seem that 
planting Black Cherry in pure stands would be advisable. 



BLACK CHERRY 295 

poisoned from eating the withered leaves, and children 
made ill by eating large quantities of the fruit — the pois- 
onous element being the same as in peach seeds. There is 
considerable use made of an extract of the bark in pul- 
monary complaints. 



THE ELMS 

There are four species of Elms indigenous to the 
United States that have a commercial value. They are 
commonly known as White Elm {Ulmus ameidcana)^ 
Ked Elm ( Ulmus pubescens}, Cork Elm ( Ulmus race- 
mosa), and Cedar Elm ( Ulmus crassifolia) ; but their 
names are woefully mixed in some localities. There is little 
economic difference in the value of the wood, and few con- 
sumers are able to distinguish the lumber cut fi-om them, 
and it is doubtful if many dealers can distinguish them. 
For many purposes there is little choice ; none are suited 
for general, but all are admirably adapted for special uses. 

White Elm : Gray Elm : Ulmus americana 

Beyond question this is the most common and wide- 
spread of all the Elms. It is of extended range, reaching 
from the foothills of the Rocky Mountains eastward over 
every state and more or less scattered throughout the en- 
tire area. It is the largest of the Elms and probably pro- 
duces more lumber than all the rest, — at least, it has 
done that heretofore, — and for most purposes the lumber is 
as good as that of the other species. The tree grows to an 
enormous size and lives to a good old age. Professor C. S. 
Sargent,^ in speaking of it, says : " A tree, sometimes one 
hundred to one hundred and twenty feet high, with a tall 
trunk six to eleven feet in diameter, frequently enlarged 
at the base by great buttresses, occasionally rising with a 
straight undivided shaft to the height of sixty to eighty 
feet and separating into short spreading branches." This 
is an excellent description of many a forest-grown Elm. 

The trunk of a White Elm that grew in Jefferson County, 
^ Manual of the Trees of North America, page 289. 




WHITE OR GRAY ELM, CHARLEVOIX COUNTY, MICHIGAN 
Photographed by American Lumberman, Chicago, Rlinois. 



WHITE ELM 297 

Pennsylvania, and which inexcusable vandalism destroyed, 
was five feet in diameter above the buttressed base and 
thirty-six feet to the first limb, where it was a trifle over four 
feet in diameter. From the stump to the topmost part of 
the crown was one hundred and forty feet, and it spread 
its branches seventy-six feet. The stump showed three hun- 
dred and twenty-eight annual rings, and it was sound to 
the pith. The logs cut from the tree scaled 8820 feet, board 
measure. Until the last twenty-five or thirty years the tree 
had stood in a dense forest of mainly Beech and Sugar 
Maple, and had towered fully fifty feet above its neighbors. 

The best development of the White Elm was found in the 
New England States. Doctor Holmes in The Professor at 
the Breakfast- Tahle^ tells of many large ones which gave 
him great pleasure in determining their dimensions. To 
the southward it is less common and of smaller size. It 
flourishes best on moist, rich bottom lands and along 
streams, but does well on low foothills and in well-drained 
" swales," or valleys. It is not as vigorous if planted on 
high, exposed, or dry places. It is a rapid grower in favora- 
ble situations. It has been recently attacked by a species 
of beetle which may prove a serious obstacle to its culti- 
vation ; it has already lessened its use as a shade tree. 
There are several quite distinct forms. Some assume a 
weeping habit ; others form a compact crown ; while still 
others show a plume-shaped crown. 

The wood is heavy, hard, tough, difficult to split, coarse- 
grained, strong, with light, reddish brown heartwood and 
rather thick, lighter-colored sapwood. The annual rings 
are very distinct, as is also the difference between spring 
and summer wood. The medullary rays are small and in- 
conspicuous. It is commonly credited with being durable 
when in contact with the soil or where it is alternately wet 
and dry. This is an error, for it decays quickly in such 
situations. Both Red and Cork Elm are more durable 
when exposed. It is used in the construction of agricul- 
tural implements, and in other places where toughness and 



298 THE ELMS 

resistance to being split are required. It is also largely 
used for wheelbarrow bottoms and for cheap furniture, but 
the greatest demand for it is for light cooperage, for both 
staves and hoops. For a time it was looked upon as the 
only wood suitable for that purpose, but its rapid exhaus- 
tion has forced coopers to seek and use other woods ; it 
still stands at the head of the list in adaptability for 
such use. 

It cannot be depended upon to sprout from the stump, 
and consequently its propagation must come from seed, 
which is not at all difficult. The tree blossoms in early 
spring and before the leaves appear. It matures its seed 
late in May or early in June before the leaves are full grown, 
and the seed should be at once gathered and sown. The 
seeds are surrounded with a thin film or continuous wing, 
and, being light, are blown a long distance by the wind. 
The seed-bed should be a sandy soil, or one which will not 
crust over after a rain, the seeds sown in drills seven or 
eight inches apart, and, as not all seeds are fertile, from 
one half to one inch apart in the row. An abundance of 
moisture is requisite for good germination and growth of 
seedlings. They should attain a height of eight to twelve 
inches the first year, and can then be transplanted into the 
forest any time thereafter, although, if to be set out among 
bushes, it would be best to let them remain in the beds for 
another year, when they will frequently reach thirty inches 
in height. They are blessed with a large number of fibrous 
roots, and if reasonable care is taken in transplanting not 
three per cent should be lost. It is a comparatively shallow- 
rooted tree, and when mature throws its roots out to a great 
distance, as may be frequently seen along stream banks 
where they have been exposed. The sap pores in the roots 
are very large, frequent, and continuous. Water can be 
easily forced through them for several feet. 

In order to grow valuable lumber, the tree must be 
crowded in early life to prevent its throwing out limbs low 
down, one or more of these frequently putting forth efforts 



RED ELM 299 

to become leaders. When grown in the open in early life it 
has little value for lumber. It is not known that it has been 
planted for forest purposes in this country, and a careful 
examination of young growth coming on from natural seed- 
ing must be our guide as to the distance apart the trees 
should stand in the forest, — probably from six to seven 
feet, according to fertility and moisture of the soil. The 
tree has so many valuable features that it will be safe to 
plant largely, especially in situations where it may not be 
profitable to cultivate land for farm crops, as along streams 
that frequently overflow their banks, and where it may 
be too wet to cultivate at all, or difficult to get at. While 
there are better species of trees for lumber, this can be 
grown where but few superior ones will thrive. 

Red Elm : Slippery Elm : Ulmus pubescens 

This tree has substantially the same range as the White 
Elm. It can be grown in all respects in the same manner 
as that tree, and its wood can be used for the same pur- 
poses, with the additional advantage that it resists decay 
longer when exposed to the soil. It prefers the same kind 
of soil as the White Elm, but it seldom attains a height of 
over sixty feet or a diameter of more than two feet. It is 
quite similar in general appeai-ance to the other Elms, but 
its leaves are larger and rougher. It grows more rapidly 
when young, but it is not long-lived, and its thick, live bark 
is heavily charged with mucilage which is frequently used 
in medicine. 

The heartwood is brown-red and the sapwood thin and 
light-colored. The heartwood is strong, tough, coarse- 
grained, and, except being darker in color and resisting 
decay longer, is practically the same as that of the White 
Elm. The time of blossoming and ripening the seeds is 
substantially the same as that of the White Elm, but the 
seeds have a much wider film or continuous wins:. Its cul- 
tivation should be along the same lines. 



300 THE ELMS 



Cork Elm : Ulmus racemosa 

Until within the last few years this tree has been gen- 
erally known by the name here given it, but for some rea- 
son the lumber trade has seen fit to call it Rock Elm, and 
Hard Elm, according to location. The name Cork Elm is 
eminently proper and should be retained, for it is significant 
of a distinctive characteristic of the dead bark on the trunk 
and limbs. The tree's range is from New Hampshire west- 
ward along the Canadian line to Nebraska, southward to 
central Tennessee, and eastward to the coast. It is not 
common west of the Mississippi River or east of central 
Pennsylvania. The region of its best development is in the 
Lake States, especially Michigan and Minnesota, where it 
grows to a height of one hundred feet, with a diameter of 
four to four and one half feet, with a slightly tapering 
stem, sometimes free from limbs for more than one half its 
height. While it will grow in rather dry, gravelly soil, it 
thrives best in moist, rich valleys and along alluvial stream 
banks. It is more tolerant of shade than the other Elms, 
notwithstanding the fact that, like the others, it throws out 
large limbs low down when grown in the open. In some 
cases the interior of the crown is filled with twigs and 
leaves, which would not occur if it were very exacting of 
light. One variety of the Cork Elm has a drooping habit 
and consequently is called "Weeping Elm." 

The wood closely resembles that of the Red Elm, is 
hard, heavy, tough, and strong ; heartwood light brown, 
with thick, lighter-colored sap wood. It is more durable than 
the White, but less so than the Red Elm, and its general 
uses are about the same as are that of the latter. It is 
largely used for agricultural implements, and sometimes 
for railroad ties, and is said to serve fairly well for that 
purpose. 

Its flowers appear in early spring and before the leaves 
do. The seed ripens when the leaves are about half grown 



CEDAR ELM 301 

and should be at once gathered and planted, for drying 
destroys their vitality. It cannot be learned that any effort 
has been made to grow it for forestry purposes, although 
one variety — the weeping one — has been successfully prop- 
agated for ornamental use. Evidently propagation should be 
along the same lines as for the White Elm. In the region 
of its best development it is in no way inferior to the White 
Elm and in such localities is equally worthy of cultivation. 

Cedar Elm ; Ulmus crassifolia 

This Elm is confined in its range to Mississippi, Arkan- 
sas, and Texas, where it grows to a fair-sized tree, and the 
wood is said to be substantially the same as that of the 
other Elms. Little can be learned concerning the tree, and 
whether it will justify efforts at propagation is entirely 
conjectural. The only response the author has been able to 
get to inquiries concerning it is that it " is as good as any 
other Elm." 



BASSWOOD: Tilia 

While botanists find six species of Basswood in the 
United States, only three of them have any economic value 
as timber trees. They are Basswood (^Tllia amer'icana), 
the largest and best of the three, White Basswood {Tilia 
heterophyllci)^ and Downy Basswood {Tilia 2)uhescens^. 
The wood of these is nearly alike in commercial import- 
ance and the difference in the trees is mainly in the size, 
and as they grow in substantially the same sections of the 
country, it is not thought necessary to make any distinc- 
tion in considering them. The term Basswood will include 
all three. In some markets, however, there is a distinction 
made in the lumber trade. White Basswood is classed sep- 
arately, but the distinction is not general. In some locali- 
ties all Basswood is called Linden. That is the name it 
bears in Europe. 

The natural range is very great. With the exception of 
Florida, it may be found, more or less, in every state east 
of the Mississippi River, and also in the eastern portion of 
the states lying next to that river on the west. Its best de- 
velopment is along the bottom lands and in the rich soils 
bordering on the Ohio River and its tributaries, although 
fine specimens once grew on the upper tributaries of the 
Susquehanna River. Doubtless it was produced in greatest 
abundance and of the best quality in the valley of the Ohio. 
It seldom grew in pure stands, and when so found was lim- 
ited to small areas. Its most acceptable neighbors are Ash, 
Hickory, Elm, Cherry, Yellow Poplar, Beech, and occa- 
sionally Oak and Black Walnut, all luxuriating in a rich, 
moist soil. It will grow indifferently well in a dry, poor 
soil, yet it would not be a profitable tree to plant in such 
soil, as it is not a rapid grower after thirty or thirty-five 
years of age. Nor should it be planted in situations exposed 




BASSWOOD 
Photographed by J. Horace McFarland. 



BASSWOOD 303 

to strong winds, as the wood is somewhat weak when 
green. 

It can endure considerable shade, and to make it grow 
tall and free from limbs, it must be crowded in early life 
and until it reaches its height growth, when, if so situated, 
it will grow a tali, slightly tapering stem, free from limbs 
for forty or more feet. When it once overcomes its com- 
petitors, it will throw out a rounded and somewhat open 
top, with specialized limbs. Trees have been occasionally 
found from one hundred to one hundred and twenty feet 
high, with a diameter of four feet, but such growth is very 
unusual. A tree eighty feet high and thirty inches in di- 
ameter may be considered a large tree. Old trees are fre- 
quently hollow, and in many cases the heartwood is found 
entirely decayed for a portion of its height, and the tree 
still growing, showing that the only function the heartwood 
performs is to support the trunk and crown against the wind. 
The roots of the Basswood run deep, and have been known 
to penetrate fourteen feet and clog a sewer pipe. 

The wood is soft, generally straight-grained, and of fine 
texture, not strong but tough, with light-brown heartwood 
and an extremely thick and nearly white sap wood. There 
is little difference between spring and summer growth, and 
the medullary rays are small and inconspicuous, plainly 
distinguishable in the live bark, however. Boards cut from 
Basswood can be steamed and bent into many shapes suit- 
able for carriagework and like purposes. It takes glue, 
stain, and paint well, and is largely used for carriage pan- 
els and cabinetwork, exterior and inside finish, cheap fur- 
niture, toys, wood carving, pulp, and many other purposes 
where light soft wood is required. It is not durable when 
exposed to the ground or to the weather unless protected with 
paint. Logs cut from it should be sawed the same year that 
they are cut or injury will arise from decay. Lumber cut 
from some trees is frequently found to have hard black 
spots and streaks, from half an inch to two or more inches 
long and from a narrow streak to an inch or so wide, and 



304 BASSWOOD 

somewhat irregular in shape. They are not serious defects 
and their cause is unknown. 

When the bark is peeled in early summer and thrown 
into water, the mucilaginous parting between the live an- 
nual layers soon decays, and the latter separate into long, 
ribbon-like strips constituting the common " bast " of com- 
mei"ce. 

Basswood does not seed until about thirty years of age 
but after that will produce seed very frequently, sometimes 
every year for a long period. In the Middle States the 
blossoms appear in early July and the seed ripens by the 
first of October. The seed is encased in a hard, spherical 
shell, about one fourth of an inch in diameter. When this 
shell is removed, the seed proper will still be found encased 
in another hard coating. These shells prevent moisture 
from reaching the seed, and the result is that germination 
cannot take place until the outer shell decays. To facilitate 
such decay, the seeds should be planted as soon as ripe, 
and if not, they should be stratified in wet sand and placed 
where they can be alternately frozen and thawed during 
winter. They have been known to lie in the ground two 
years without any very perceptible change. There is as yet 
no known method of hastening the decay of the outer shell 
without destroying the vitality of the seed. Probably strat- 
ifying in sand and removing such as show evidence of 
growth in the spring is about all that can be done. The 
seeds can be sown in the seed-bed the same as Ash or 
Maple. The seedlings develop a stout root somewhat akin 
to a tap-root, but they can be deprived of it without much 
injury ; yet it would be best to remove them into the trans- 
plant nursery in order to have a well-established root sys- 
tem when set in the forest. As the tree starts growth early 
in the spring, and will not stand removal after the leaves 
start, early planting is absolutely necessary. The tree 
sprouts from the stump quite freely, but sprouts seldom 
attain a size large enough for sawlogs without being de- 
cayed at the butt. 



BASSWOOD 305 

The United States Forest Service recommends planting 
Basswood trees five feet apart each way in the forest. This 
is rather close, as the tendency of the tree is to grow tall 
even in the open, and it is not given to throwing out large 
limbs until it has reached a considerable height ; six feet 
apart would be close enough. Its rapid growth when young 
would insure a good forest floor in a few years. There are 
few diseases affecting it, and the value of the lumber — for 
we have nothing that can satisfactorily take its place — 
should warrant endeavors to overcome the difficulty of germ- 
ination and cause the tree to be planted extensively. Its 
flowers are highly charged with nectar, and honey gathered 
from it has a delicious flavor. In some sections it is called 
the " Bee Tree," partly because of its honey-laden flowers 
and partly because colonies of wild bees occupy the hollow 
spaces occasionally found in the upper part of the stem. 



THE BIRCHES 

Of the eight species of Birch in the United States, only- 
three are of enough economic importance to warrant con- 
sideration. These are Black Birch (^Betula lenta^ frequently- 
called Cherry Birch and Sweet Birch), Yellow Birch (^Bet- 
ula lutea, sometimes called Gray Birch), and Paper Birch 
(^JBetula papyrifera, in some localities called Canoe Birch). 
There is still another species which is occasionally converted 
into lumber, but its habitat is along low sti-eam banks ; 
hence the supply is quite limited. It is the Red or River 
Birch {Betula nigra), and can be depended upon to pro- 
pagate itself if allowed to. 

Black Birch : Betula lenta 

In general make-up this species is quite distinct from the 
other Birches, and it is not of so extended a range nor so 
common where it does grow. Neither does it shed its annual 
layers of dead bark as do the others, and its wood is harder 
and more valuable. Its range is from Maine westward to 
southern Indiana and Illinois and along the Alleghany 
Mountains to central Kentucky and Tennessee, and it is 
occasionally found in western Florida and northern Georgia. 
In the Northern States its companions in the forest are 
Beech, Sugar Maple, Black Cherry, White Ash, and Yellow 
Birch. It grows well on fairly dry ground, but prefers a 
deep, rich soil. 

Its wood is strong, heavy, — green logs from thrifty trees 
will sink in water, — and is a very good substitute for 
Hickory for heavy wagon axles and similar purposes. It is 
excelled in hardness by few of our timber trees, and only- 
Hickory is superior to it for fuel. From its close resem- 
blance to Black Cherry, both in texture and color when 



YELLOW BIRCH 307 

finished, the old heartwood is frequently substituted for it in 
furniture and interior finish, and the possessor of it is little 
wronged. The heartwood is of a reddish brown color, with 
light yellow sapwood frequently composed of fifty or sixty 
annual layers. It is close-grained, with very small and in- 
conspicuous medullary rays. It takes glue well, and shows 
a satiny texture when properly finished. 

It is of extremely slow growth, and seldom attains a large 
size before decay sets in. While furnishing valuable timber, 
its slow growth will prevent its profitable reproduction by 
planting. Natural regeneration occurs wherever an oppor- 
tunity is given, as it is a prolific seeder and the seeds are 
scattered widely by the winds. Whatever the future of the 
tree may be, it must rest entirely upon natural reproduction. 
Aside from the general uses of the wood referred to, the 
twigs, small branches, and bark are distilled for the essen- 
tial oil they contain, which is palmed off on an unsuspect- 
ing purchaser as " wintergreen," and he is not so greatly 
wronged as he might be, for it is preferred by some to the 
genuine article. When tapped or wounded in the spring, 
Black Birch yields an enormous amount of slightly sacchar- 
ine sap, which will flow about the time the buds burst and 
the leaves begin to appear. 

Yellow Birch : Gray Birch : Betula lutea 

This is a very common tree in the Northern States, rang- 
ing from the Canadian line to North Carolina and Tennes- 
see. Like several other species of trees, its wood was not 
deemed valuable until conditions forced its use. Until re- 
cent years lumbermen left it in the woods either to blow 
down, be burned, or scatter its light, winged seeds far and 
wide when its cones opened, which occurs early in the fall. A 
brisk wind will carry the seeds for miles. In some localities 
this feature makes it more than a weed tree, — it becomes 
a pest, as it grows rapidly in early life and suppresses more 
valuable species. In old age it grows slowly, and in some 



308 THE BIRCHES 

sections of the country is liable to become hollow when large 
enoug-h for the saw. Trees sometimes attain a heig-ht of 
ninety or one hundred feet and a diameter of four feet, but 
such dimensions are rare. 

The wood is close-grained, heavy, strong, compact, hard, 
but not durable when exposed to the weather or the ground. 
The heartwood is light brown tinged with red, with sapwood 
thin and nearly white. There is little difference between 
spring and summer wood, and the meduUaiy rays are small 
and inconspicuous. It takes glue and stain readily, — all 
Birches do that, — and so close an imitation of dark ma- 
hogany is attained with it that only the very expert are un- 
deceived ; yet a slight bruise will disclose the counterfeit. 
It is used mainly for furniture and interior finish, veneers 
for panels and seats, boxes, and for many purposes where 
a rather hard and strong wood is required. It is fairly good 
fuel and will serve a good purpose in the farmer's woodlot. 

Its companions in the forest are Black Cherry, White 
Ash, Maple, Bass wood, Black Birch, Beech, and it may 
occasionally be found growing with Hemlock. In northern 
New England, Yellow Birch grows abundantly with Red 
Spruce. All the above-named hardwoods are far better for 
timber than it is, and as they will grow in the same locali- 
ties, and in the same soil, they would best be grown in its 
stead. Add to this the fact that it will reproduce itself nat- 
urally and it will be seen that any effort to grow it artifi- 
cially, except, it may be, in the woodlot, would be useless. 
Like the Black Birch, it will give an abundant flow of 
slightly saccharine sap if wounded in late spring. 

Paper Birch : Betula papyrifera 

In many respects this tree resembles the Yellow Birch. 
Both shed annual layers of dead bark when young, the 
Paper Birch characteristically so. In old age the annual 
layers of bark cease to separate and the bark becomes thick 
and firm. This feature is taken advantage of by Indians 



PAPER BIRCH 309 

and others who make the well-known bark canoes of it. 
This gives it the name of Canoe Birch. The thin, creamy- 
white layers of bark, which separate when the tree is com- 
paratively young, may be used as a substitute for paper, 
hence its botanical designation, papyrifera. Like the Yel- 
low Birch, the tree is a prolific seeder, and its seeds are 
blown to a great distance, and natural reforestation readily 
occurs. 

Its natural range is in the northern portions of our coun- 
try, and where seen in the Middle States it seldom attains 
a size suitable for a sawlog, generally reaching the pole 
stage only and even falling below that. Its best develop- 
ment is in the states bordering on the Canadian line. 

The wood is light, very close-grained, strong, tough, and 
hard when seasoned. The heartwood is light brown, tinged 
with red, and the sapwood is thick and nearly white. It is 
largely converted into spools, and for that use is shipped 
to Europe. It is also made into " excelsior," and is like- 
wise used for pulp, turnery, veneers, and fuel. Like the 
other Birches, its natural reproduction can be depended 
upon. In fact, it will, if allowed to, crowd out all other 
species on a cut-over or burned tract. Its propagation for 
lumber should not be undertaken. It is useful, however, in 
covering the surface of burned districts and preventing 
erosion of the soil. 



BEECH : Fagus americana 

This well-known tree is distributed, intermittently, 
throughout nearly the whole country east of the Missis- 
sippi River. It is one of the very few trees that have escaped 
a number of names. It is universally known as Beech, al- 
though in some sections it is called Red, White, and Ridge 
Beech. It was long used for a limited number of pur- 
poses, but as other species of timber trees became scarce, 
it has been made to play its part in furnishing a supply of 
lumber, and it is now put to many uses, mainly because 
nothing better can be secured for the money. Homer says 
the Beech is "the tree of Father Jupiter." When grown 
in a dense stand, it sends up a straight, smooth, and slightly 
tapering stem, clear of limbs for fully one half or more 
of its height, with comparatively small and short crooked 
limbs ; but when in the open, it branches out low down and 
forms a rather dense and rounded crown. It is tolerant of 
shade, as much so as any of our timber trees. It has been 
known to reach a height of one hundred and fifteen feet, 
with a diameter of forty inches, but the average of what 
may be called mature trees is much less, ordinarily reach- 
ing a height of seventy-five feet and a diameter of eighteen 
to twenty inches. 

There is quite a prevalent belief that there are two spe- 
cies in this country. Red and White Beech. That is a mis- 
take. When in the open, the tree grows rapidly in early 
life. It is not unusual for it to make an annual growth of 
one fourth or even five sixteenths of an inch during the 
first thirty or forty years of its life, and nearly all of this 
will be sapwood and white ; but in the forest its growth is 
slower, and for some unknown reason the change from sap- 
wood is there more rapid and the relative amount of sap- 
wood is much less ; this has given rise to the belief in two 




BEECH 
Photographed by J. Horace McFarland. 



BEECH 311 

species. Like that of all other trees the sapwood will decay- 
sooner than the heartwood, and because Beech trees were 
found lying on the ground in the deep woods, with the sap- 
wood all rotted away and the red heartwood sound, it was 
assumed that " Red Beech " was a distinct species. 

The wood is strong, tough, hard, but not durable. It is 
close-grained, with little distinction between spring and 
summer growth. It is difficult to season. The heartwood is 
quite red and the sapwood nearly white. The sapwood is 
mainly chosen for plane stocks, saw handles, and other uses 
where wood is required capable of taking on a fine finish or 
withstanding wear. It is used for turned and other parts of 
cheap furniture, and is now being converted into flooring. 
It has long been known as " clothes-pin wood," and for a 
time that was about the most extensive use it was put to. 

It is not an early or a frequent seed-bearer, but generally 
produces a generous crop when it does fruit. It may be 
readily grown by planting the little triangular nuts, but as 
it is a difficult tree to transplant, the seeds would best be 
sown where the trees are to grow. It has many lateral roots, 
which, when growing in the forest, run close to the surface 
of the ground. These are filled with adventitious buds, 
which spring into growth as the tree advances in age, and 
a dense undergrowth naturally results, and there is little 
difficulty in producing a natural stand, but, as a rule, these 
do not produce large trees. Still, they will serve an excel- 
lent purpose for fuel, and a young, vigorous Beech, pro- 
perly seasoned, has few superiors for such use, either in a 
closed stove or on the open hearth. Yet this tendency to 
grow from sprouts should not govern in the decision 
whether it is to be grown to the exclusion of better trees, 
such as White Ash, Black Cherry, Sugar Maple, Basswood, 
and some others, which naturally grow with it in our for- 
ests. These superior trees can be more readily propagated, 
and hence artificial reproduction of the Beech can hardly 
be justified, except in the case of the farmer's woodlot, 
where it could be made to play an important part in the 



312 BEECH 

production of excellent fuel. In such cases It need not bo 
planted as closely as when grown for saw timber, for the 
trees will produce a greater weight of wood when grown 
ten or twelve feet apart than if planted closely enough to 
compel them to drop their lower limbs when young. Its 
little nuts are rich and delicious and are highly prized by 
men and nut-eating animals of all kinds. They should be 
gathered as soon as ripe and not allowed to become at all 
dry, for their vitality will be destroyed if they do. They 
should be planted at once or stratified in moist sand until 
spring and placed in the ground as soon as conditions will 
permit. Beech is a favorite timber tree in Europe, but it 
is there quite distinct in growth and character — in fact, 
a different species. 

In some localities it is seriously affected with what is 
known as " white rot." A fungus attacks it, and while the 
outside may be alive nearly the whole interior is decayed. 
The United States Forest Service states that ninety-five 
per cent of the Beech in the Adirondack forests of New 
York is affected. The disease is known to exist quite seri- 
ously elsewhere. 



BLACK WALNUT: Juglans nigra 

In the early settlement of our country, trees were cut 
down mainly for the purpose of clearing the land for agri- 
culture, and few or none suffered more from such work than 
Black Walnut. This came about because it occupied the 
best and most fertile lands in the valleys and the low 
foothills bordering the principal streams, and hence was 
the first to be attacked. Large numbers of trees were cut 
down and burned. As it is very durable when exposed, and 
splits easily, it furnished the fence rails for many a farm. 
Later it was discovered that the wood was very valuable, 
and then, without any consideration for a future supply, its 
destruction went on rapidly, and it is now nearing exhaus- 
tion. At present lumber cut from that tree brings in the 
market the highest price of any of our native woods. Nor is 
its value limited to lumber cut from the body of the tree, in 
the sawmill, as is the case with nearly all other species of 
timber trees, but limbs, crotches, and stumps are sought to 
be worked into veneers, gunstocks, and for many other pur- 
poses where fancy woods are desired. Stumps of trees cut 
years ago are being dug up and bring large sums. Old 
fence rails have been gathered for turnery, and old furni- 
ture secured and cut into veneers and for other purposes 
for which it was fitted. 

The natural range of the Black Walnut is from Massa- 
chusetts west to eastern Nebraska, south from there to 
eastern Texas, near the Gulf ; thence easterly to Florida, 
and from there through western Georgia and the Carolinas 
to Norfolk, Virginia, and on northward to Massachusetts. 
It also grows in Canada along the St. Lawrence River. Its 
best development, both in size and quality, was west of the 
Alleghany Mountains and on the fertile slopes of the Appa- 



314 BLACK WALNUT 

lachians in North Carolina and Tennessee. It revels in 
rich bottom lands and on fertile hillsides, where it grows 
most rapidly and yields the best lumber. Thus far efforts 
to grow it outside of its natural home have not proved very 
successful ; yet such attempts may have been made in un- 
suitable soils, or, what is more probable, by transplanting 
trees instead of planting seeds where the trees are to grow. 
This last would account for practically all failures, even if 
the soil and location were what the tree demands — in both 
of which it is very exacting, few trees more so. If soil and 
location favor and the seed be planted where the tree is to 
remain, it will be found a rapid grower and good results 
will follow. It will grow in a not very fertile soil and in 
comparatively dry ground, but the growth will be slow and 
the quality of the wood inferior. 

It is decidedly a light-demanding tree. If grown in the 
open, it throws out limbs low down, which become large, 
crooked, and forked, though not particularly specialized, 
each one striving to become the largest. If crowded in early 
life, it will send up a tall, straight, slightly tapering stem 
one hundred to one hundred and thirty feet in height, clear 
of branches for more than one half its height, with a diame- 
ter of even six feet ; but such trees are seldom found. 

The heartwood is a rich dark brown, with a rather thin 
and nearly white sap wood. It is hard, strong, durable ; is 
generally straight-grained and splits easily ; of a very fine, 
satiny texture ; takes glue well, and is susceptible of a very 
fine finish. The wood is easily worked, and there is little 
difference between spring and summer wood either in hard- 
ness or color. It is rather coarse-grained, with quite con- 
spicuous pores mingled with the spring and summer wood, 
but the medullary rays are not prominent or very numer- 
ous. The crotches and roots are beautifully waved and 
mottled and are almost invariably cut into veneers or made 
into gunstocks. Such parts of the ti^ee as are not used for 
these purposes are now mainly devoted to fine furniture, 
interior finish of expensive apartments and boats, while 



BLACK WALNUT 315 

large quantities are cut into veneers. Much of that now 
harvested is shipped to Europe in the log. 

The tree blossoms late in May and ripens its fruit in 
October. The nuts should be gathered as soon as ripe, for 
squirrels — to which should be mainly credited their distri- 
bution in the forests of the past — are extremely fond of 
them. They should be at once planted or covered in layers 
of sand, where they can be frozen during winter, and 
planted as early in the spring as possible. In no case should 
they be permitted to become dry. The tree develops a very 
prominent tap-root the first year of its life, frequently going 
down into the ground twenty or more inches, while the stem 
may not have raised its head much over eight inches above 
the surface. It resents interference with this feature of its 
development and seldom fully recovers from its injury or 
removal, notwithstanding the fact that it will naturally 
throw out prominent lateral roots as it grows older. From 
this it will be seen that growing plants in the nursery and 
transplanting them into the forest, or anywhere, cannot be 
expected to result in complete success. The only certain 
way is to plant nuts where the trees are to stand until ma- 
ture. Fall planting will be best if there is no danger that 
squirrels or other nut-eating animals will destroy them. 
They should be covered from one to two inches deep, ac- 
cording to the character of the soil. The seedlings grow 
from six to eight inches high the first year, and will make 
good headway in their struggle with unwelcome neighbors. 
They should not be planted in the shade. 

While the nuts are valuable and are highly prized, no re- 
turns from these should be expected from trees grown in 
the forest, for they will not bear until old, and then spar- 
ingly. Those grown in the open will produce fruit, but at 
what age is not definitely known, possibly at twenty-five or 
thirty years. To bring forth tall, straight trees, free of 
limbs for twenty or thirty feet, planting must be close and 
thinning carefully done. Probably six by six feet apart 
would be about right for rich ground, but five by five feet 



316 BLACK WALNUT 

would serve best In less fertile soil, while the leader should 
be carefully watched, and if it divides, one of the parts 
should be promptly removed. But there is less need to 
grow this tree slim and straight than with most others, 
owing to the value of crotches and crooks. Hence trees 
grown in the fields, along streets, in by-places, wherever 
the ground is suitable, may be as profitable for timber as 
in dense stands, and more so for fruit. 

The great value of the wood and nuts should lead to its 
cultivation wherever land is suitable and not too valuable. 
There are small areas on many farms located within its 
natural range which cannot, for one cause or another, be 
devoted to tillage, but are suitable for growing this tree, 
and the advisability of planting such is obvious. Unfor- 
tunately it has a caterpillar enemy which sometimes strips 
it of its leaves. 



BUTTERNUT : Juglans cinerea 

When grown in the open, the general appearance of the 
Butternut somewhat resembles the Black Walnut, and is 
frequently mistaken for that tree by persons not familiar 
with both. The similarity is more in its leaves, however, 
than in any other feature. It seldom forms a straight stem 
and can rarely be seen without crooks, crotches, and bends, 
even where crowded in the forest. It is emphatically light- 
demanding, and to secure logs at all satisfactory for the 
saw it must be grown in a close stand. 

It may be found more or less along streams and in rich, 
moist soil from Maine to northern Georgia, and westward 
to the Mississippi River. In some sections it grows on the 
lower slopes of hills and mountains with Maple, Beech, 
Birch, Cherry, Oak, and White Ash. Trees one hundred 
feet high and three feet in diameter have been known, but 
they are very rare. It seldom exceeds half these dimen- 
sions. It is a rapid grower when young, but is much given 
to decay when old, and cannot be considered a long-lived 
tree. 

The wood is very light, soft, straight-grained, of a beau- 
tiful satiny texture, and susceptible of a high finish — by 
some esteemed equal to Black Walnut. When stained, it 
closely resembles that wood, but such treatment is little 
short of sacrilege, for it is beautiful in its own garb. Its 
medullary rays are inconspicuous. There is little difPer- 
ence between spring and summer wood, and it has a fine 
grain. The heartwood is of a yellowish color, growing 
darker on exposure, with a thin, nearly white sapwood, 
composed of not more than six or seven annual rings. 
It seasons well and is easily worked. It is used for furni- 
ture and other like purposes, and also for pulp. 

The tree is not an early seed-bearer, seldom bearing 



318 BUTTERNUT 

fruit before thirty-five years of age. Neither is it very pro- 
lific when it does fruit. It has a tap-root and hence is diffi- 
cult to transplant, and such trees as survive the operation 
are short-lived. Propagation should be the same as for 
Black Walnut in all respects, as it is closely allied to that 
tree. It bears a delicious nut, and trees planted where cul- 
tivation of the soil is difficult or unprofitable will amply 
pay for the care and use of the ground, as many prefer 
the nut to the Walnut. The tree is sometimes called " White 
Walnut," which is an appropriate name, for it is a Walnut. 
However beautiful its wood or however rich its fruit, it can 
hardly be classed as a profitable timber tree owing to the 
peculiarities noted. 



LOCUST : Rohinia pseudacacia 

In varying localities this tree is respectively called 
Yellow, Black, Green, and Red Locust, — with several 
other prefixes, — but the lumber trade and general public 
know it as " Locust." It presents an interesting illustra- 
tion of the possibility of spreading a tree far beyond its 
natural range. Its original home was in the Alleghany 
Mountains, reaching from northern Pennsylvania to north- 
ern Georgia, with its best development on the western 
slopes of the mountains of West Virginia. It has been 
spread by cultivation through most of the states lying 
north of Georgia from the Atlantic Coast westward to be- 
yond the Mississippi River, and has recently been intro- 
duced into California. This wide extension has been brought 
about, in part because of its usefulness through the dura- 
bility of its wood when exposed to the soil, — only Red 
Cedar and Hardy Catalpa rivaling it in that, — in part for 
its rapid growth when young, but largely for ornamental 
purposes, consequent upon its profusion of white, fragrant 
blossoms. 

Because it will thrive in certain localities peculiarly suited 
to it, it has been too frequently deemed adapted to all in that 
vicinity, which, in many cases, is not the fact. In its native 
home it may be found growing vigorously on moist, fertile 
soil, especially on rich bottom lands along mountain streams 
and at the foot of hills, while on high mountain slojses and 
ridges but a few miles away it may be of much less econo- 
mic value ; although in such situations it may, now and 
then, grow tall and slim, but barely large enough for fence 
posts, and in many cases it may die before reaching that 
size, or grow branched and crooked. It is a very capricious 
and much overrated tree, and before planting it extens- 
ively for any purpose, except small poles and posts, great 



320 LOCUST 

care should be taken to secure a suitable location, as it is 
less reliable outside its natural habitat than within it. Be- 
sides its exacting demands for acceptable soil and location, 
it suffers greatly from a sj^ecies of borer, which attacks not 
only the stem of the tree, but its branches and even small 
limbs, and against this assault there is no defense. Pro- 
fessor C. S. Sargent, in his Silva, ssijs: "The value of 
Rohinia pseudacacia is practically destroyed in nearly all 
parts of the United States, beyond the mountain forests 
which are its home, by the borers which riddle the trunk 
and branches." The author's recent observations in West 
Virginia disclosed the fact that the borer had invaded that 
region and was doing much damage. To this must be 
added that in many localities, including some portions of its 
natural range, a dark brown beetle commonly called the 
" locust leaf miner," has recently attacked its leaves. But as 
there are locations where it does thrive, and where neither 
beetle nor borer has yet worked serious damage, it is deemed 
justifiable to treat of its character and the best methods of 
propagation. 

In its best development trees were found from eighty to 
ninety feet in height and from three to three and one half 
feet in diameter, but such dimensions were rare. Its average 
size does not exceed seventy-five feet in height or more 
than twenty inches in diameter. It is light-demanding, 
but notwithstanding that fact it will grow quite tall in the 
open, while in some localities its habit is to separate and 
throw out branches low down, each one of which soon sets 
up a struggle for supremacy as a leader, and unless sup- 
pressed or removed, the contest will cause the tree to change 
its form and shoot upward with two, three, or more stems 
of nearly equal size. This tendency operates strongly against 
its usefulness, for if all the ambitious stems are allowed to 
grow, it will require a much longer time for any one of the 
several branches to reach a useful size than would be ne- 
cessary if all the wood could be grown in one. Close plant- 
ing will somewhat prevent this, but cutting back all but 



LOCUST 321 

the straightest and most vigorous stem is the only way to 
control it, for close planting has its drawbacks. When 
close-planted or shaded by dominant trees, it at once begins 
to fail in vigor and show decay. 

It grows rapidly when young, and when in favorable 
situations will make a yearly growth of three feet in height, 
with an increase in diameter of one half to three fourths of 
an inch. But even in the most acceptable locations this 
rate cannot be depended upon for more than twenty or 
twenty-five years at farthest. It generally begins to fall off 
in rapidity of growth when fifteen or twenty years old, and 
from that time on its annual rings gradually lessen in 
thickness. As a rule, it cannot be relied upon to produce 
a standard railroad tie under forty-five, and frequently 
not under fifty, years of age. It is well adapted to growing 
fence posts and will do that in twenty to thirty years. 

The wood is heavy, strong, hard, coarse-grained, stiff, 
and extremely durable when in places where it is exposed 
to the soil or where alternately wet and dry. The heart- 
wood is generally a yellowish brown, but occasionally will 
have a pale green tinge. The sapwood is yellowish white 
and extremely thin, frequently consisting of but four or 
five annual layers. The wood is principally used for fence 
posts, and, where large enough, for railroad ties, in ship- 
building, and also for mudsills and in places where great 
durability is desired. Owing to the scarcity of ti-ees large 
enough for sawed lumber, — brought about mainly by the 
fact that the most valuable stage of its life is when it will 
make fence posts and ties, — there is but little manufac- 
tured locust lumber offered in the market. 

It is one of the few valuable species of our forest trees 
that will grow from sprouts without rapid deterioration of 
its vitality. It throws up sprouts from adventitious buds 
on its small surface roots, and hence these sprouts do not 
suffer from decay of their roots, as they would if growing 
from decaying stumps ; but if permitted, they will spring 
up so as to produce dense thickets and be worthless. With 



322 LOCUST 

the exception of the California Redwood, the Beech, and the 
Chestnut, the Locust is the only valuable species that can 
be reasonably depended upon to reproduce itself by sprouts. 
Other trees, like Basswood, Hickory, Yellow Poplar, Cu- 
cumber, the Oaks, and a few others, occasionally sprout if 
the tree is cut when young, but it is very seldom they do 
to any satisfactory extent. 

The Locust blooms in late May or early June, according 
to locality. The seeds are in pods — it is a legume — and 
are ripe by October, and can be gathered and sown at once 
or kept cool and planted early in the spring, the earlier 
the better, for even then they may not germinate under 
two years. The pods will hang on the trees until late win- 
ter. The seeds are encased in a hard shell, and if planting 
is delayed until spring they should be placed in water 
nearly boiling hot. Such seeds as swell during the opera- 
tion of scalding should be removed, and more hot water 
put on such seeds as have not expanded, until all have 
swollen, when they should be promptly planted, for their 
vitality will be destroyed if they then become at all dry. 
They should be sown in the seed-bed in rows eight inches 
apart and two inches apart in the row, if only swollen seeds 
are sown. The seedlings can ordinarily be transplanted into 
the forest when one year old, for they may then have at- 
tained a height of eighteen inches. 

Some of the railroads have planted Locust for ties, spac- 
ing them six, eight, ten, and twelve feet apart, but just the 
right distance has not been determined, as it depends largely 
upon the character of the soil and location. It is to be re- 
gretted that some of the plantations set out by the railroads 
are not as promising as anticipated, and other trees are 
being planted in their stead. This comes, no doubt, from 
causes which arise from the tree's idiosyncrasies. Notwith- 
standing the many discouraging things which must be re- 
lated of this tree, it has some remarkably good qualities 
and should be cultivated wherever it will thrive, but only 
careful observation can determine that. 



HONEY LOCUST : Gleditsia triacanthos 

Here is a tree which so much resembles the common 
Locust in its leaves, fruit, and wood that there should be 
no wonder that it is called a Locust, yet, botanieally speak- 
ing, it is not a Locust. The prefix " honey " to the common 
name has, no doubt, been given because of the sweetness 
of its seed-pods. However incorrect its common name may 
be, it has come to stay, although it has several others by 
which it is known. The tree may be readily recognized by 
the prominent thorns or spines which almost invariably 
appear on the stem and limbs. These are, probably, abor- 
tive developments of adventitious buds, sometimes single, 
but more generally three-forked, hence the botanical desig- 
nation triacanthos. 

As indicated, its wood closely resembles that of the com- 
mon Locust, and all efforts to ascertain whether there is 
any distinction made in the lumber trade have failed. There 
should be no discrimination made against the Honey Locust, 
for its wood is quite equal in value to the common Locust 
for all purposes, and in fact superior to it for some. 

Like the common Locust, its natural range was somewhat 
restricted, but it has been spread, mainly for ornamental 
purposes, over a much larger area than it originally occu- 
pied. Its original home extended from central New York 
south to Georgia and from the Alleghany Mountains to 
eastern Kansas and Nebraska, but it may be found as an 
ornamental tree, or grown for hedges, in almost every state 
east of central Kansas. While it is very abundant in central 
Kentucky, its best development is along the rich, moist river 
bottoms of southern Indiana and Illinois. It thrives best in 
such situations, yet does fairly well in any moderately fertile 
soil, if not too wet. It is by no means as exacting or capri- 
cious in regard to soil or location as the common Locust, 



324 HONEY LOCUST 

and it is equally hardy. If the soil is deep, it will grow on 
dry ground, and the indications are that it will do well in 
the Middle West where the rainfall is somewhat restricted. 
It is light-demanding, and if not crowded will generally 
branch out low down, and instead of throwing up a single 
stem there will be several of them struggling for supremacy. 
In this it exhibits the same objectionable feature as the 
common Locust. Advantage has been taken of this tend- 
ency in planting it for hedges and fences. If cut back to near 
the ground when young, it will throw up numerous branches, 
and if properly handled will form an almost impenetrable 
barrier, which is made more formidable by its thorns. It 
does not sprout from the roots unless they are wounded. 

Its propensity to branch can be easily controlled. Close 
planting in the forest will cause the lower limbs to die 
and drop off, and the tree will then throw up a straight 
stem clean of large limbs. It is a rapid grower, and an an- 
nual increase in height of two feet and one half inch in 
diameter is not uncommon in favorable locations, for a 
score or moi-e years, and in less favorable ones it will 
generally add a foot or more in height and increase in dia- 
meter fully one third of an inch. 

The wood is very hard, strong, heavy, coarse-grained, 
and with a marked difference in appearance between spring 
and summer wood. The heartwood is a bright red brown, 
frequently nearly red in thrifty trees, with thin and pale 
sapwood, the latter seldom over fifteen annual rings and 
frequently not over ten. The medullary rays are numerous, 
but small, and are conspicuous for their brilliancy, and if 
the lumber is sawed radially they add much to its beauty 
when finished. It is very durable when exposed to the soil, 
and for all uses where great durability and strength are 
required, it has few superiors. It is mainly used at present 
for fence posts, rails, hubs of wheels, and general construc- 
tion, but must, eventually, be grown for saw timber and its 
use extended. 

It is a good seeder and bears quite abundantly after 



HONEY LOCUST 325 

twenty-five years of age, sometimes earlier. The seeds are 
in pods, — it is a legume, — and they should be gathered 
in the fall and placed where they can dry out, when the 
pods can be readily broken and the seeds will fall out. The 
seeds may be sown in the fall or stratified in moist sand. 
Freezing will not injure them, but they should not be allowed 
to become very dry. If kept until spring, they should be 
placed in hot water and kept warm until the seeds swell, 
and as soon as that occurs they must be planted, for any 
drying or delay then will prove fatal. It may be necessary 
to renew the hot water several times, removing all that have 
swollen before this is done. They can be planted in the 
seed-bed in rows six inches apart and two inches apart in 
the row, and from one half to three fourths of an inch deep. 
The soil should be kept moist until the plants are well 
established. If all things are favorable, the seedlings may 
reach a height of ten or twelve inches the first year. They 
can be removed from the seed-bed when one or two years 
old, depending upon the condition of the ground into which 
they are to be placed. Transplanting in the nursery is not 
necessary, although it would strengthen the plants and aid 
them in overcoming adverse conditions when placed in the 
forest. There should be slight loss in transplanting, if done 
with reasonable care. Commercial nurserymen find no diffi- 
culty in growing this tree from seed. It is not attacked by 
borers, and so far as known has no fungus disease, nor is 
it attacked by any insect. 

It is not known just what distance the trees should be 
placed apart in the forest. This must be governed by the 
character of the soil — the poorer the soil the closer they 
should be set. It must be remembered that they are emi- 
nently light-demanding and should be placed close enough 
to overcome the tendency to throw out limbs. Probably 
from four to six feet apart, according to the character of 
the soil, would be about right. If set too thick, thinning 
will remedy it, but no treatment can overcome the mistake 
of planting too far apart. 



CUCUMBER : Magnolia acuminata 

Notwithstanding that this tree has several names, it is 
best known by the one here given — this, no doubt, because 
the shape and color of its fruit, when green, somewhat re- 
semble a cucumber. There are seven species of Magnolias 
growing naturally in the United States, but this is the only 
one producing timber of any commercial value. Its natural 
range is not very extended. It is largely confined to the Ap- 
palachian Mountains, and their eastern and western slopes, 
from central New York to central Georgia and Alabama, 
spreading out, however, to southern Illinois, and into Ken- 
tucky and Tennessee. It has never been found abundant in 
any one locality, and frequently is entirely absent from 
sections surrounded by regions where it is to be found. 
This is, no doubt, because the percentage of fertility of 
its seeds is very low and both fruit and seeds are extremely 
bitter and obnoxious to the taste of man and brutes ; and, as 
the seeds have no wings to enable them to be carried by the 
wind, they are not widely scattered. 

Its best development is at the base of the mountains of 
eastern Tennessee and Kentucky and in West Virginia. It 
prefers a rich and rather moist soil, but thrives well in the 
not very fertile soils of the carboniferous formation in West 
Virginia and Pennsylvania. When grown in the open, its 
crown forms a fine pyramid, with limbs from near the 
ground up to a sharp apex ; but being light-demanding it 
will, when crowded, produce a straight, slightly tapering, 
smooth stem, sometimes fifty or more feet without a limb, 
and with a diameter of three and one half to four feet, and 
a total height of one hundred feet. 

The wood is light, soft, brittle, straight- and fine-grained, 
easily worked, and does not warp or split when seasoning. 
The heartwood varies in color from a light yellow-brown to 
a dark reddish brown, with frequent streaks quite like pale 




CUCUMBER, NEARLY FIVE FEET IX DIAMETER, IX VIRGIX FOREST 

Man standing near it; other trees are mainly Hemlock. John E. DuBois Estate, 

Elk County, Pennsylvania. 

Photographed by Dr. Hugh P. Baker. 



CUCUMBER 327 

burnt umber. Occasionally it may have a tinge of olive 
green. The sapwood is thin and of a yellowish white. There 
is little distinction between spring and summer wood. It is 
used for furniture, especially for bottoms and sides of 
drawers, interior finish, pump stocks, and for most purposes 
for which White Pine can be used, except where strength 
is required ; and it is more durable when exposed. It takes 
glue, paint, and stain well, but shows a rather dull finish 
under varnish. It is rated in the market as about equal to 
Yellow Poplar in quality and value, except for pump stocks, 
for which it is preferred. 

It is not a frequent seeder, nor is it a prolific one. When 
ripe, the fruit is a brilliant red, and generally crooked and 
distorted in shape. The seeds are a bright scarlet, and sus- 
pended from the fruit by a white thread an inch or more 
long. They should be gathered as soon as ripe and stratified 
in moist sand and kept in a cool place. Freezing will not 
harm them. Seeds should be sown in the nursery the 
same as those of Ash or Maple. The plants grow quite 
rapidly after the first year and may be transplanted into 
the forest when two years old, although it would be best to 
place them in the transplant nursery for another year. The 
roots are brittle and few fibrous ones are developed, which 
makes transplanting into the forest difficult and uncertain. 
The tree grows rapidly when young, and it maintains its 
vigor quite well for a long time. The value of the wood will 
justify an earnest effort to propagate it. Scarcity of seed 
and its low percentage of fertility are serious hindrances 
to its propagation. If injury occurs to a tree in its early 
life, sprouts will be thrown up from the stump, but these 
seldom attain a size large enough for the saw, and when they 
do they are generally decayed at the butt. The same treat- 
ment should be accorded it in the nursery and in transplant- 
ing it into the forest as is given to Yellow Poplar, White 
Ash, and Maple. Probably the plants would best be planted 
about six feet apart, but in rich soil seven feet would be 
advisable. It cannot be ascertained that any experience has 
been had in planting it in the forest. 



SYCAMORE: BUTTONWOOD : BUTTONBALL : 

Platanus occidentalis 

This tree is burdened with nine names. The Indian 
name, when translated into English, was " Big Stockings." 
Those most commonly applied to it are "Button wood" and 
" Buttonball," and these were, no doubt, chosen from the 
ball form of its fruit. Platanus is the classical name for 
the Oriental Plane Tree, now known to botanists as P. ori- 
entalis, which is largely planted for ornament in Europe, 
and has lately been introduced into this country. 

No one who has taken a good look at this tree will fail 
to recognize it afterwards, although few trees so change 
their general outline and form of crown when passing from 
youth to old age. From early to nearly middle life, it sends 
up a straight stem with straight limbs slanting upward and 
forming, when in the open, a formal and regular pyramid 
from near the ground to a pointed apex at the top. When 
it is approaching its height growth, whether growing in 
the open or in a crowd, limbs that were once straight and 
regular begin to droop and straggle and assume irregular 
shapes, with bends and crooks, and the crown is wholly un- 
like that in early life. When grown crowded, it shoots up 
a tall, straight stem free from limbs for two thirds of its 
height. Groves of young trees may be frequently seen, 
where the stand is crowded, that have the appearance of 
a mass of painted poles with a few stag-horn branches at 
the top. Being very intolerant of shade, it seeks to obtain 
light and outstrip its competitors. 

It has another peculiarity, wherein it differs from most 
trees. Like all others it annually forms a layer of live bark 
next to the cambium, and as regularly an annual layer dies 
on the outside of the live bark ; but instead of being elastic, 
or accommodating itself to the increasing size of the tree, 



SYCAMORE 329 

the dying layer — except at and near the base of mature 
trees — annually scales off, leaving the live bark without 
such protection as is afforded by the dead bark of most trees. 
This dying layer is at first white, bvit as the season advances 
it generally turns to an olive-gray, and when it falls off in 
patches, as it usually does in winter-time, it causes the tree 
to look as though liberally splashed with whitewash. As 
the tree approaches maturity, the dead bark adheres to the 
stem from the ground upwards for some distance and forms 
scales somewhat resembling those of the White Ash. The 
adhering dead bark is of a gray color, making the tree show 
a darkened base surmounted by a mottled or whitewashed 
stem and branches. 

There is still another peculiarity in which it is almost 
entirely alone. While buds are regularly formed, in late 
summer, for a succeeding year's growth, none are visible 
until the leaf stem separates from the branch. The base 
of the leaf stem — the petiole — entirely covers the bud 
formed for the next season with a cover much resembling 
the old-fashioned conical candle extinguisher. 

It has an extended range, reaching from Maine and 
southern Michigan to northern Florida and the Gulf of 
Mexico, and from the Atlantic Ocean to eastern Texas, 
Oklahoma, Kansas, and Nebraska. (There is a species in 
California, but it is of little economic value for timber.) It 
flourishes best along streams and in moist fertile soil, where 
it grows quite rapidly in early life and keeps up a fairly 
thrifty condition for a long time, reaching an old age. It 
will grow in somewhat dry soil, but seldom attains its larg- 
est size there. Its best development is along the Ohio and 
Mississippi rivers and their tributaries, especially the Wa- 
bash and Miami, where it has been found one hundred and 
fifty to one hundred and seventy-five feet high, with a dia- 
meter of ten to eleven feet, with a tall, straight, and clean 
stem, lessening but little in diameter as it nears the crown. 
Many large trees once existed along the Susquehanna and 
Delaware rivers. Old trees are liable to be hollow. Pro- 



330 SYCAMORE 

fessor C. S. Sargent ^ declares it to be " the most massive 
if not the tallest deciduous-leaved tree of North America." 

The heai'tvvood is yellowish brown, with thin and light- 
colored sapwood. It is of medium weight, close-grained, 
rather tough, very difficult to split, and with very numer- 
ous, small, but decidedly distinct and conspicuous medul- 
lary rays. None of our timber trees surpass it in this respect, 
and when quarter-sawed it is susceptible of a very beauti- 
ful finish, and hence it is, latterly, being used for cabinet 
and interior work. Until within the last score of years it 
was used almost exclusively for butcher's blocks and plug- 
tobacco boxes. It is difficult to season because of its tend- 
ency to warp, and it decays quickly when exposed. 

It is an early and prolific seed-bearer. Its well-known 
ball-shaped fruit hangs on nearly all winter, disintegrating 
in the spring, the winds scattering the seeds far and wide. 
Falling in the running streams, they lodge along the bor- 
ders, in the sand and gravel banks and exposed bars, and 
large numbers of plants spring up, but they are mostly de- 
stroyed by the freshets of the succeeding spring. These 
young seedlings frequently attain a height of eight to twelve 
inches by fall, and may be secured and planted at once or 
heeled-in until spring. Spring gathering would be better, 
but there is danger of their destruction by freshets if left 
until then. The young plants are well supplied with fibrous 
roots and their removal and subsequent treatment are not 
at all difficult, if set in proper ground. The tree can be 
grown from cuttings. These should be gathered in the fall 
and cut about twelve inches long from the current year's 
growth. They should be heeled-in in a moist place and pro- 
tected from frost. In such a situation they will callus by 
spring and growth will generally occur. The callused cut- 
tings should be planted where the trees are to grow, as 
plants from cuttings do not generally bear transplanting. 

If the plants cannot be obtained, the seed can be gath- 
ered in the fall or winter, separated by crushing the ball, 

* Manual of the Trees of North America, page 3-15. 



SYCAMORE 331 

and sown in early spring in moist, rich ground and treated 
as are other broadleaf species. They grow quite rapidly in 
early life, and need not remain in the nursery beds more 
than two years. As the tree naturally grows in ground 
unfit for cultivation, because of overflow, its propagation 
should be encouraged there. If this is undertaken, the tree 
should not be allowed to throw up several stems from the 
same root, a thing which it is liable to do. 

In recent years it has been attacked by what appears to 
be a fungus disease. Soon after the leaves appear in the 
spring they begin to shrivel and curl, turn brown, and die. 
New ones generally put out, but the tree is checked in 
growth and frequently does not readily recover, and seldom 
if attacked the next year. It is denied that this is a fungus 
disease or an attack of insects, but it is alleged to be the 
result of climatic or meteorological conditions. This may 
be so, for all the trees may be attacked in a section of the 
country one year and not the next. 



THE COTTONWOODS: POPLARS 

Technically speaking we have no Cottonwoods, but 
there are nine species of trees indigenous to the United 
States that are generally known as Cottonwoods ; yet 
botanically they, together with two others, are Poplars, and 
to persist in calling these nine species Poplars would lead 
to confusion in the minds of those not familiar with botan- 
ical nomenclature. The two species of Poplars not classed 
as Cottonwoods are commonly called Aspens. They are 
Trembling Aspen (^Populus tremuloides) and Largetooth 
Aspen {Pojndus grandidentatci). It is seldom that either 
of these grows large enough in the United States to be of 
value for saw timber, and at best they are worth but little 
for that, yet they are considered the most valuable of any of 
our woods for paper pulp. It is only in the extreme north- 
ern portion of our country that they attain a size to make 
artificial cultivation a profitable undertaking. They repro- 
duce themselves abundantly whenever offered an opportun- 
ity, even to the extent of becoming a nuisance by crowding 
out more valuable species ; hence they will not be further 
considered here. 

There is one feature common to all the Poplars and Cot- 
tonwoods. The stem of the leaf — botanically, the petiole 
— is flat and its face is at right angles with the face of the 
leaf, and this permits a slight wind to cause the leaf to vi- 
brate, hence " Trembling Aspen." Three species of Cotton- 
woods are, to some extent, manufactured into lumber, but 
as there is little difference in them a consideration of one 
will substantially cover all, notation being made where they 
differ. These are known as Swamp Cottonwood {Popidus 
heteroitliylla)^ Balm of Gilead (^Pojndus halsamifera)^ and 
Cottonwood (^Populus deltoides). The last species is best 
known and most important. For a long time it was known 



THE COTTONWOODS 333 

as Cottonwood, but latterly it has been called Carolina 
Poplar, a name given to it, no doubt, by some enterprising 
nurseryman to disarm a prejudice generally felt towards 
the Cotton woods, and it has been palmed off on an unsus- 
pecting public as a newly discovered species of Poplar, and 
one well adapted to ornamental purposes — for which it has 
only one redeeming feature, that of rapid growth. It should 
have no place on the lawn or street. In some sections it is 
known as Necklace Poplar, and there is no more reason 
for calling it Carolina Poplar than there is for designating 
it Virginia Poplar, or affixing the name of any other state, 
for some variety of it grows in nearly every state east of the 
Continental Divide. Strictly speaking, it should not be 
placed in the class of important timber trees, for, except as 
will be noted, it is of little value for lumber alone ; yet there 
are some uses to which it can be profitably put, whereby it 
may play an important part in forest economy. It is a first- 
class wood for paper pulp, and by its rapid growth it may 
be made to bring quicker returns than any other native 
forest tree. It can also be made useful in protecting stream 
banks from erosion, as it will thrive on ground too wet for 
trees that will produce more valuable lumber and which is 
too wet to cultivate. It is readily reproduced by sprouts 
from cut stumps and roots, and can also be propagated by 
cuttings set in the ground where the trees are to stand. 
These features certainly warrant placing it in the list of 
trees worthy of cultivation. 

It must not be said, however, that it is invariably of lit- 
tle value for lumber, for along the valleys of the Missis- 
sippi and Missouri rivers the character of the wood is quite 
different from that grown elsewhere, and it is there known 
as Yellow Cottonwood. Lumber cut from trees grown there 
is reported easy to work, can be dressed smooth, serves a 
fair purpose for work that is not exposed, will take on a 
good finish, and is adapted to many pui-poses for which 
Yellow Poplar is used. As there appears to be no marked 
botanical difference in the trees there and elsewhere, the 



334 THE COTTONWOODS 

difference in character of the wood is, no doubt, caused by 
difference in soil, moisture, or climatic condition, or all of 
these — features which affect all species of trees. 

Its best development is in the valleys of the Mississippi 
and Missouri iivers and their eastern tributaries, where 
it may be seen with a stem one hundred feet high and from 
six to eight feet in diameter. East of the Appalachian 
Mountains it is less vigorous, smaller in size, and shorter- 
lived, although trees eighty feet in height, with a diameter 
of quite three feet, are not at all uncommon. It grows most 
rapidly in early life and soon becomes a tree large enough 
for commercial purposes. Its most vigorous growth is in 
moist soils along low-bank streams, at the moist bases of 
hills and mountains, and on the borders of swamps ; ground 
can be too wet for it, however. It will grow quite readily 
on poor, dry soils, if not very dry, but it there shows symp- 
toms of failure quite early in life. It does not grow vig- 
orously on sandy plains or on dry mountain-tops or on their 
sterile and dry sides. Ground rather wet for cultivation is 
well adapted to it. In situations at all suited, it is a very 
rapid grower, and not much given to developing large 
limbs, wherein it widely differs from its half-brother the 
Balm of Gilead, a species which should not be mistaken 
for it. It is light-demanding and any crowding by other 
trees will kill off its lower branches. In fact, they will die 
in a few years from its own shade, even when grown in the 
open. Its natural habit is to send up a tall, straight stem 
with a moderate amount of small limbs. But few of our 
native broadleaf trees will grow as tall in the open. It is 
shallow rooted, even when growing on moderately rich and 
moist soil. 

The wood is soft, weak, and with somewhat contorted 
fibre. It is coarse-grained, difficult to season, with a strong 
tendency to warp, and shrinks greatly when drying. The 
heartwood is dark brown, with a very thick and nearly 
white sapwood. There is little difference between spring 
and summer wood. It is used for rough lumber, such as 



THE COTTONWOODS 335 

sheathing where it is protected, for box boards, cheap ve- 
neers, fruit and vegetable crates, and the " Yellow Cotton- 
wood " for flooring and cheap interior finish. It is seriousl}'' 
affected by atmospheric changes, where not protected by- 
paint or varnish, as it readily imbibes moisture. It is being 
planted in some sections for pulp wood, for which it is ad- 
mirably adapted. It is claimed that, when growing on soil 
adapted to it, it can be relied on to yield from three to five 
cords of pulp wood per acre per annum, in from seven to 
ten years after planting. It is not unusual for a tree to 
grow to a height of forty-five or fifty feet, with a diameter 
of twelve inches in ten years. 

Propagation is best effected by inserting cuttings in the 
ground where the trees are to stand. This is preferable to 
sowing seeds, for the reason that the cuttings can be taken 
from trees bearing staminate flowers, thus avoiding the 
nuisance of the cottony floats which fill the air from trees 
that bear the pistillate flowers; although it is claimed that 
trees grown from seed are longer-lived than when propagated 
from cuttings. This is quite likely the case, but if the trees 
are to be cut for pulp wood a long life is not essential. Its 
habit of throwing out sprouts from its roots is very general, 
although there appear to be two varieties and one is more 
given to this than the other. Any mutilation of the roots 
will cause either variety to sprout. In case a sprout does 
not come up where a tree is wanted, — but they are generally 
numerous enough, — a spade can be used to cut off the 
roots where it is desirable for a tree to grow. The sprouts 
will at first grow much faster than the cuttings, as the es- 
tablished root system gives vigor to the sprout. A sprout 
has been known to grow nine feet in height the first year 
and a cutting seven feet. 

In propagating from cuttings it is best to secure strong, 
healthy shoots of the previous year's growth, such as are 
entirely free from branches, looking well to see that the 
buds are well developed. The cuttings may be from three 
fourths down to three eighths of an inch in diameter, and 



336 THE COTTONWOODS 

should be cut on a warm day in the last of February or the 
first of March. Early cutting is essential, for if the buds 
have swelled or the leaves have started to grow, failure is 
almost certain to result. Cut the shoots into lengths of eight 
to ten inches, with a bud near the top end. That end may 
be cut off square, but the other should be cut slanting, so as 
to give as much length as possible for " callus " to develop, 
for it is from this that the roots largely spring. Place 
the cuttings, butts downward, in moist ground in a cool 
cellar, or, better, out of doors, with the butts well covered 
with earth. Freezing will not hurt them. This is practically 
"heeling them in," and they should remain there until 
about the time the leaves of the trees in the vicinity begin 
to grow. Then take a pick and make a slanting hole in the 
ground where the tree is to stand — this hole should be at 
an angle of about twenty or thirty degrees from the hor- 
izontal — and insert the cutting up to the bud, leaving the 
latter just even with the surface of the ground. Stamp the 
earth down on the cutting and the operation is completed. 
It is absolutely necessary that the earth be packed down 
close on the cutting and that it and the earth should be in 
close contact. Nearly every one will grow if these instruc- 
tions are followed, providing, however, that there is not a 
growth of weeds, grass, or shrubs to shade and suppress 
them. The author knows of a case where cuttings were 
planted in ground on which goldenrod grew very dense 
to a height of nearly four feet, and right alongside were 
cuttings placed in ground where there were no weeds to 
shade. The latter all lived and flourished ; some grew four 
feet high the first year ; while in the other ground, all 
started to grow, but nearly all were dead by fall. 

It is impossible to indicate the distance apart that the 
trees should be planted. That depends largely upon the 
character of the soil. If the ground is rich and moist, they 
may be placed from six to eight feet apart ; if poor and dry, 
five or six feet apart will be best. It has been shown by 
experience that twelve feet is too great a distance on dry 



THE COTTONWOODS 337 

ground. It will be better to plant close, for it will be easy 
to relieve by thinning. In harvesting, it will be best to take 
out the largest trees first and leave some to stand for a 
year or two to protect the forest floor and act as " nurses " 
to the young shoots. 

The persistency of the tree in throwing up shoots should 
prevent planting on lands where it is proposed to cultivate 
or on lawns or in streets, and the tendency of its roots to 
search for water should prevent planting near drains and 
sewers, for they will surely fill them with fibrous roots 
should there be an opening in them through which a tiny 
root can enter. The tree is sometimes attacked by borers 
and by oyster-shell scale — the former being the most for- 
midable. 

Swamp Cottonwood differs little from that just de- 
scribed. It is a smaller tree and in some sections the wood 
is better than that of either of the others. Its natural hab- 
itat is in the swamps, and if permitted would undoubtedly 
reproduce itself as far as could be desired. 

Balm of Gilead is useful for pulp, but the Carolina Pop- 
lar is a much better tree. Its tendency is to branch out 
low down and develop an open, straggling crown, with 
specialized limbs, and the wood is so weak that it is fre- 
qxiently destroyed or badly broken by winds. It is seldom 
sawed into lumber. It warps badly in drying. Its cultiva- 
tion as a forest tree cannot be recommended, and its habit 
of throwing up sprouts should prohibit its cultivation where 
they will interfere with cultivation of the ground or with 
any other use of it. 



THE GUMS 

There are three species of trees classed as " Gums," 
which have a commercial value for lumber. The most im- 
portant of the three is commonly known as Red Gum, but 
it is not a Gum nor does it belong to the genus. There is 
nothing in common with this and the true Gums in either 
flowers, fruit, shape of leaves, or quality of wood. Its cor- 
rect name is Liquidambar — botanically Liquidamhar 
styraciflua. It is best, however, to treat it as a Gum to 
avoid confusion, for the lumber trade has adopted that 
name and by that it is commonly known. 

Not until recent years was any one of the trees known 
as Gum esteemed of any value for merchantable lumber. 
Wood cut from the true Gums was soft, but not easily 
worked because of the interlacing of its fibres, and, what 
was more, that cut from all species would warp badly in 
seasoning. But the increasing scarcity of more valuable 
woods compelled consideration of the question whether 
such wood could not be made useful. Experiments in man- 
ufacture and treatment followed, and it was discovered 
that, with proper handling, lumber cut from all three 
species could be made quite serviceable for many purposes, 
decidedly so for some ; and now, instead of allowing these 
trees to stand in the swamps or occupy ground suitable for 
agriculture, or to be girdled and allowed to decay and then 
burned, — as has been frequently done in some of the 
Southern States, — a large amount of lumber has been and 
is still being cut from them. 

The uses to which this lumber has been put are many, 
all legitimate enough if deception is not practiced ; but to 
ship it abroad as " Satin Walnut " — for by that name is 
Red Gum known in England, where large quantities of it 
are consumed for interior finish, furniture, and the like — 



BLACK GUM 339 

is not the right thing to do ; nor is there any justification in 
calling, here at home or elsewhere, any of the Gums 
"Satin Walnut," "Circassian Walnut,"'" Bay Poplar," 
" Hazel Pine," or " Nyssa," for that is a deception. It is 
true that " Nyssa " is the botanical name for all the true 
Gums, but the average purchaser is not likely to know that 
fact, and the dealer practically lies to him with a truth 
when he sells him Gum under that name. He might as 
well sell Water Oak as " Quercus." If properly manufac- 
tured and treated, all the Gums have, for the purpose for 
which they are adapted, merit enough to be known and sold 
under their true names. The three important species are 
Black Gum (^JVyssa sylvatica, sometimes called Sour Gum 
and Pepperidge), Tupelo Gum (^Nyssa aquatica^ frequently 
called Cotton Gum), and Red Gum (^Liquidambar styraci- 
Jlua, in some states called Sweet Gum). 

Black Gum : JVyssa sylvatica 

There is great lack of uniformity in names given to 
this tree. It is known as Black Gum in fifteen states, as 
Sour Gum in fourteen, as Tupelo in eleven, and Pepper- 
idge in ten. It has the greatest range of any of the species. 
A line drawn from the coast of southern Maine to southern 
Iowa, from there to southern Texas, and from there along 
the Gulf and Atlantic coasts, and again to Maine will in- 
close an area in which it may be found, but not uniformly 
so. It may be occasionally seen one hundred feet in height, 
with a diameter of four and sometimes five feet, but these 
dimensions are far above the average, as it is by no means 
uniform in growth. It has many slender limbs which are 
frequently drooping, but if growing in a dense stand it will 
show a fairly good stem free from limbs. In some sections it 
grows along the borders of swamps and flourishes in wet and 
poorly drained soils, but it is often found on high mountain 
slopes. Its best development is along the base of the south- 
ern Appalachian Mountains. 



340 THE GUMS 

The wood is heavy, soft, strong, very tough, decays 
quickly when exposed, is difficult to season ; fibres fine, but 
much interlaced, and hence hard to split ; heartwood light 
brownish yellow, with sap wood lighter-colored, but very 
thick, showing seventy-five or eighty annual rings. It is 
used for wheelhubs, rollers for wire ropes, ox-yokes, crates 
for fruit and other like commodities that can be shipped 
in boxes of thin material, cut into veneers for packing up 
seats and panels, and also for wrapping packages where 
they can be rolled up, its interlaced fibre preventing split- 
ting when thus used. 

As other and more valuable species can generally be 
grown where this flourishes, it is manifestly better to culti- 
vate them than to endeavor to propagate this species be- 
yond what natural reproduction will bring about. A little 
care in that direction will provide all that is needed, for it 
is mainly used for want of better species. 

Tupelo Gum : Nyssa aquatica 

Fortunately this tree is not loaded down with many 
names. In addition to Tupelo, it is sometimes called Sour 
Gum and Cotton Gum. Its botanical name indicates its 
aquatic character, which is very pronounced. It is the 
largest and most important of the genuine Gums. Its range 
is along the coast region from southern Virginia to northern 
Florida, through the Gulf States to Texas, and then up 
the Mississippi Valley to Missouri. It is essentially a swamp 
tree, growing in many places where the ground is inun- 
dated for a large part of the year. It is a frequent com- 
panion of the Bald Cypress, and like that tree has a greatly 
enlarged, tapering, and generally hollow base. In large 
trees this base may reach seven or eight feet across at the 
ground. It is a large, stately tree, frequently growing to a 
height of one hundred feet, with a diameter of four or five 
feet next above the enlarged base. Its branches are com- 
paratively small, having few or no specialized limbs, and 



RED GUM 341 

when grown in a fairly dense stand it produces a stem free 
from limbs fully one half its total height. 

The wood is light, moderately strong, soft, close-grained, 
not durable, fibres much interlaced and hence difficult to 
split. It takes glue, stain, paint, and varnish well. The 
heartwood is light brown, often nearly white, with thick, 
lighter-colored sapwood, which may frequently be seen 
composed of one hundred annual layers. It is used in the 
manufacture of woodenware, shipping-boxes for fruit and 
vegetables, handles where great strength is not required, 
veneers, net floats in place of cork, and furnishes more or 
less of the " Circassian Walnut " and " Bay Poplar." It is 
difficult to season, but modern methods have largely over- 
come that. When used where exposed to moisture, the back 
should be coated with paint or shellac to prevent warping. 

Whether it will thrive outside of swamps, or, if so, 
whether it will be a profitable tree to grow beyond natural 
reproduction, is open to grave doubts. If confined to swamps, 
natural reproduction must be depended upon ; and if it 
will grow elsewhere other and more valuable trees should 
take its place. 

Eed Gum : Liquidamhar styracijlua 

The correct name for this tree is Llquidambar, but it is 
generally called Red Gum, and sometimes Sweet Gum. It 
has a wide range. A line drawn from Connecticut to Mis- 
souri and thence to Texas and the Gulf will give the bound- 
ary line on the inland side, and one from the Gulf of Mexico 
along the Atlantic Coast to Connecticut on the other, but 
it is not common north of Maryland. Its commercial range 
is mainly confined to the moist lands of the Ohio and Mis- 
sissippi basins and of the southern and southeastern coast. 
It is one of the most common and one of the largest trees 
that occupy the hardwood bottom lands of the South. 
Even occasional overflowing does not seem to affect it 
seriously. However, it will grow on comparatively dry 



342 THE GUMS 

ground, but does not reach so large a size there. It prefers 
a deep, rich soil. Its companions are Oak, Elm, Mocker- 
nut and Shagbark Hickories, White Ash, and occasionally 
Black Walnut. 

When young and growing in the open, it forms a reg- 
ular conical crown, quite like a conifer, and is frequently 
grown as an ornamental tree. It is emphatically light- 
demanding, and in this respect is as exacting as any other 
broadleaf tree. When grown in a stand, even moderately 
dense, it will send up a straight stem free from limbs to an 
unusual height for a broadleaf tree. There have been found 
trees one hundred and fifty feet high, with a diameter of 
five feet, but this is far above the average, as the tree 
varies much in size and vigor according to soil and locality. 
It has a peculiarity not common to other species. When it 
attains its height growth, its stem is much given to separat- 
ing into two branches, and it then throws out a spreading 
crown. This forking appears to be quite general, no matter 
in what locality the tree may be found. 

The wood is heavy, moderately hard, close-grained, stiff, 
fairly straight-grained, not strong, and easily worked. The 
heartwood is bright brown, tinged with red, with thin and 
nearly white sap wood. It is claimed that the heartwood is 
as durable as Red Oak. Its general use is for outside and 
interior finish for houses, for furniture, mouldings, handles, 
fruit and vegetable crates, veneers, and many other like 
purposes, and, like Tupelo, supplies "Circassian Walnut." 
It takes glue, stain, and paint well, and, when properly 
" filled " and varnished without stain, gives a satiny and 
transparent finish. When quarter-sawed its beauty is mani- 
festly enhanced. While shrinking and warping badly when 
not properly handled, modern methods of seasoning have 
nearly if not quite overcome these defects. It should be 
known that, while the wood is only moderately heavy when 
dry, green logs will sink. This can be overcome by cut- 
ting them when the sap is down and letting them season 
for a few months. 




SOUTHERN HARDWOOD FOREST, MAINLY RED GUM 
Copyrighted by Clark L. Poole & Co., Chicago, Illinois. 



RED GUM 343 

There do not seem to be any reasonable grounds for 
attempting artificial reforestation. The tree has a pro- 
nounced tap-root when not growing in wet ground. This 
will prevent growing trees profitably in a nursery and 
transplanting into the forest. It is a frequent and prolific 
seeder, but the seedlings are so intolerant of shade that 
natural regeneration takes place slowly, and indications are 
that land must be thoroughly cleared to have that occur 
satisfactorily. In fact, natural regeneration fails except 
along the borders of open fields. Add to this the further 
fact that much of the land on which it grows can be ren- 
dered suitable for agriculture, and, if not, will grow more 
valuable trees, like Black Walnut, White Ash, and Yellow 
Poplar, and it will not appear advisable to undertake its 
cultivation beyond natural processes. While its lumber is 
largely used at present, mainly because of a shortage of 
better kinds, it is not such as to command a high price in 
market. 



THE CATALPAS 

Theke are two species of Catalpas in the United States, 
somewhat unlike in economic value and botanical charac- 
teristics, but bearing a close resemblance in general ap- 
pearance. One is Catalpa speciosa, commonly called Hardy 
Catalpa, and the other Cataljta higjionloides, widely known 
as Bean-tree. Neither is cut into lumber to any notable 
extent, their value lying in the rapidity of growth and the 
durability of the wood when in contact with the ground. 
These features render them of enough importance to justify 
classing them with the timber trees of the country. 

Catalpa speciosa was originally found only in southern 
Illinois, southern Indiana, western Kentucky, northwestern 
Tennessee, northeastern Arkansas, and eastern Missouri, 
but by cultivation it has been spread over a much larger area. 
The region of its best development is in its natural range. 
It is the more important of the two species, but appears to be 
quite variable in its character. In some sections it develops 
a straight stem, with a full height of one hundred and 
twenty feet and a diameter of four feet or more, while in 
others it will insist on growing crooked, with large special- 
ized crooked branches and limbs. It prefers a rich, moist 
soil, such as may be found along streams and around ponds, 
even submitting to occasional inundations without injury. 
It is both light- and moisture-demanding. 

It is quite probable that more Catalpa trees have been 
planted in this country during the last few years, than of 
any other forest species, but, unfortunately, success has by 
no means always followed the effort. It is claimed by some 
that the wrong species has been planted — that Catalpa hig- 
nonioides has been substituted for Catalpa speciosa. This 
may be the case, and largely so, too, for there is a great 
similarity in the trees, but it is certainly known that there 



THE CATALPAS 345 

has been no mistake in some instances where practical fail- 
ure has resulted. Many efforts have been made to grow the 
speciosa where climatic conditions were unsuited to it, as 
it cannot endure a low temperature in the winter, and it 
also appears to be exacting as to soil and moisture. Even 
where not killed outright by a low temperature, it will 
frequently crack open from expansion of the moisture in the 
wood by freezing. In many places, no doubt, the soil was 
too poor and dry. It frequently persists in growing crooked, 
and unless young trees are cut close to the ground when 
well established, causing a new shoot to spring up, it is 
very difficult to secure a straight stem. The reason of this 
persistency to grow crooked may be readily seen upon ex- 
amination of the ends of the stem and twigs, after the 
winter buds are formed, where it will be found that there 
is seldom a terminal bud to be seen ; but instead there are 
several gathered around the point where the central or ter- 
minal bud should be, and when they start to grow there is 
a contest for supremacy and a forked or crooked stem or 
branch is the result. If a central terminal bud has been 
formed, and it outgrows its close neighbors, there will then 
be a straight stem; otherwise a crook or fork follows. Un- 
fortunately the central bud, if it exists, is not always the 
successful one. Professor C. S. Sargent^ speaks of the 
Catalpa as " without terminal buds." 

The wood is soft, coarse-grained, light, not strong, but 
very durable in contact with the soil. The heartwood is 
light brown, with nearly white sapwood composed of few 
layers, sometimes not more than three. It is used for fence 
posts, telegraph and other like poles, for railroad ties, and 
for any purpose where exemption from decay is demanded. 
It is doubtful if any wood is superior to it, if equal, in re- 
sisting decay when exposed to the ground. It is also used 
to a slight extent for interior finish and furniture, but only 
because better lumber is more expensive. 

There is no difficulty in propagation. The tree bears 
^ Trees of North America, page 792. 



346 THE CATALPAS 

seed early and generally annually. Its fruit — which is a 
pod, sometimes eighteen inches long, containing seeds with 
wings — hangs on until midwinter, or later, and can be 
easily gathered and kept, until time to plant, in the same 
manner in which Pine or Ash seeds are cared for. They are 
quite fertile, and a good stand of seedlings a foot or more 
high may be expected by fall. They can be successfully 
transplanted into the forest the following spring or allowed 
to remain in the seed-bed another year, but a longer period 
would not be advisable, as they are rapid growers in early 
as well as in later life. Little loss should occur in trans- 
planting. 

Any effort to plant it extensively outside of its natural 
habitat should be carefully considered, and it will cer- 
tainly be advisable to plant a limited area at first. Experi- 
ment alone can determine whether it will succeed. The 
name " Hardy Catalpa " is a misnomer for a portion of the 
northern part of the United States. It is but little hardier 
than the other species, and that is known to be winter- 
killed in many sections. It appears to be exempt from 
fungus diseases, but a caterpillar destroys its leaves in 
some sections. In many places outside of its natural range 
it appears to lack vitality and dies as of old age. Any one 
proposing to enter upon its cultivation should secure a 
copy of the United States Forest Service Circular^ No. 82, 
entitled " Hardy Catalpa," where its character and natural 
habitat and the best methods of culture are exhaustively 
and intelligently discussed. Its rapid growth and great 
durability when exposed to the soil make it a very desir- 
able tree to grow if the right conditions of soil and climate 
prevail. 

The other species — Catalpa bignonioides — is a trifle 
less hardy than the speciosa, but it will accept conditions 
of soil that the latter will not. Its propensity to grow 
branched, with crooked stem and specialized limbs, seems 
to be greater, if possible, than with the speciosa. Like that 
tree it is a rapid grower, and the young trees may be killed 



THE CATALPAS 347 

down to the ground in winter, but they will usually spring up 
again, and by persistence will at last become hardy enough 
to grow into fair-sized trees. It is nearly as durable in the 
soil as the other species, and can be used for the same pur- 
poses. As an ornamental tree in an acceptable climate it is 
surpassed by few. It is a wonderful bloomer, being cov- 
ered annually late in June with a perfect sheet of flowers, 
nearly white, but tinged with purple, in great clusters and 
so numerous that they fairly cover the ground when they 
fall. The seeds are in pods the same as with the speciosa^ 
and gathering and caring for them as well as cultivation 
and planting in the forest should be the same as for the 
speciosa. It will grow fairly well from cuttings. 



EUCALYPTUS 

There are about one hundred and forty species of Eu- 
calyptus in the world, nearly all indigenous to Australia, 
and none to this country. Efforts have been made to in- 
troduce some of the species here, but they have been unsuc- 
cessful, except in Arizona and southern California, where 
they grow well. Speculative efforts are being put forth to 
extend their cultivation elsewhere, but there is no proba- 
bility of success, unless it may be in southern Florida or 
along the Gulf in southeastern Texas. Any one attempting 
to grow the tree outside of the regions named will un- 
doubtedly experience a disastrous failure. Difficulties are 
experienced even in southern California. The tree must 
have a warm, moist climate and abundant water for its 
roots. To insure success in California the young trees must, 
in most cases, be irrigated until the roots penetrate the soil 
deep enough to obtain the needed water. It is an ever- 
green, but broadleaved, and requires water the year round, 
especially when grown in groves. The general appearance 
is something like that of the Lombardy Poplar, — tall, 
with compact, slim crown ; and it presents anything but a 
tidy appearance when shedding its leaves and dead bark. 

In favored locations it is a very rapid grower, — none 
more so, — and it grows from sprouts and seeds. It is not 
unusual for a seedling to grow ten or twelve feet in height 
the first year, and sprouts from a stump will exceed that. 
The author started one from seed in the greenhouse in 
April, set it out in the open in early June, and when the 
frost killed it in early October it was twelve feet high and 
one and one half inches in diameter at the butt. Planta- 
tions in Lower California can be relied on to be fit to cut 
for fuel at the age of five or six years from planting, when 
the stems will be from six to seven, or maybe eight inches 



EUCALYPTUS 349 

in diameter, and from forty to fifty feet in height, and 
practically clean of limbs for more than half their height. 
At ten years of age, they may reach a height of eighty, 
ninety, or even one hundred feet, with a diameter of ten 
or twelve inches. The tree sprouts freely from the stump 
and the plantation can be maintained in that way. It is a 
very valuable tree for southern California, where trees are 
not abundant. 

The wood resembles the common Locust in general ap- 
pearance, is coarse-grained, comparatively soft when green, 
but hard when seasoned, stiff, strong, not very elastic, and 
checks badly when seasoning. Efforts have been made to 
use it for carriagework, as in poles and shafts, but the 
checks persist even after they have apparently all been 
worked out. It is sometimes used for heavy wagon axles 
and other parts requiring great strength, and serves a good 
purpose there. While it is reported to be durable in Aus- 
tralia, it does not bear out that claim in this country, for 
it decays very quickly when exposed to the ground. If 
chemical treatment can be made successful, it will prove 
to be a very valuable tree for telegraph and the like poles, 
and for railroad ties and fence posts. Now it is used for 
little else than fuel, for which it serves a good purpose, and 
it is a profitable tree to grow for that in its chosen habitat. 
It also provides a good wind-break for the protection of 
fruit trees and farm crops. When studying the trees of the 
Pacific Slope a few years ago, the author would inquire, 
wherever it was found abundant, " For what purpose is it 
grown?" The answer invariably was, " For fuel." "Any- 
thing else ? " " Yes, they make an ointment from its 
leaves." " Is that all?" Ordinarily, "Yes." One old resi- 
dent, however, ventured a little further. He said, " Just to 
have trees." That shows the estimate put upon it by those 
who have had practical experience with it. The best of the 
two species cultivated in California is known as Eucalyptus 
globulus — so named from its round fruit. It is called 
there "Blue Gum," or just plain "Gum." Unless some 



350 EUCALYPTUS 

new use, not now known, for the wood is discovered, it 
should not be classed among valuable trees, except in 
Arizona and southern California. Its propagation from 
seed is somewhat difficult, but in that mild climate it is 
not insurmountable. 



BROADLEAF TREES OF THE PACIFIC 
SLOPE 

While the Pacific Slope Is the home of many of the 
largest coniferous trees in the United States, and, for that 
matter, in the world, some of which rank among the high- 
est in importance in the lumber trade, — the region is 
favored with but few broadleaf species that can be favor- 
ably compared with those east of the Rocky Mountains. In 
fact, none are quite equal to the eastern relatives. Some 
of them, however, are important to that region because 
they are indigenous to it, and in some localities fairly 
abundant, and furnish a fair grade of lumber at a less 
price than the eastern hardwoods can be delivered for. A 
brief account of the best of them is here given, taken, in 
part, from Forest Trees of the Pacific Slope, by George 
B. Sud worth, dendrologist of the Forest Service of the 
United States, combined with the author's personal ob- 
servations when studying the timber trees of that region. 

Poplars. Under this head may be classed the Cotton- 
woods and the Aspens. These are substantially the same 
in general character as the Eastern species and the uses 
they can be put to are practically the same. The Cotton- 
woods are found along the low grounds of the valleys and 
in the moist sandy soils. The Aspens seek the higher and 
drier slopes and elevations. Little use is now made of 
either, but as pulp wood becomes exhausted in the East and 
other species of timber trees grow less abundant in the 
extreme West, these woods may be profitable to plant ; but 
the ample supply of other and better ones will not justify 
that effort at the present time. 

The Oaks. There are fourteen species of Oaks on the 
Pacific Slope. All of them can be found in California and 



352 BROADLEAF TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE 

few of them elsewhere. Some are magnificent trees, in an 
aesthetic sense, with immense short stems and large crooked 
branches and picturesque crowns ; but the wood is very in- 
ferior in most of them, decaying quickly, splitting badly in 
drying, and is not even first-class fuel. This is especially so 
with the Valley White Oak (^Quercus lohata), which may 
be seen nearly the entire length of California, growing far 
apart and, in some sections, with moss drooping from its 
limbs somewhat similar to the moss on some of the trees of 
the South Atlantic and. Gulf States. Only two of them can 
be considered of enough importance to warrant attempts at 
cultivation. 

Garry Oak. This is sometimes called White Oak. Its 
botanical name is Qnercus garryana. It grows on elevations 
from near sea level to three thousand or four thousand feet 
above, from Vancouver Island to central California. It is 
the most valuable timber Oak in the Northern Pacific Coast 
region. In its best development it grows from seventy-five 
to ninety feet high, but usually from fifty to sixty feet, and 
from eighteen to thirty inches in diameter, with a short, 
clean stem and a broad, round crown ; but on high moun- 
tain-slopes it dwindles to a shrubby tree. The wood is hard, 
fine-grained, tough, strong, and stiff, heartwood light yel- 
lowish brown with thin, nearly white sapwood, and suitable 
for nearly the same general purposes for which standard 
grades of Eastern White Oak are employed. It belongs to 
the White Oak Class, and matures its seed in one year. 
It is a prolific seeder every two years. Having a tap-root, 
it is probable that planting acorns will be the best method 
of reproduction. It cannot be learned that any attempt 
has been made to cultivate it. It is light-demanding but 
will endure a slight shade in early life. Germination of 
naturally sown seeds does not appear to occur readily, es- 
pecially on grassy surfaces where the seeds generally fall. 
Seedlings are rarely seen there. They are most frequent 
on moist humus soil and litter. Being the most important 



TANBARK OAK 353 

Oak in the region west of the eastern foothills of the 
Rocky Mountains, efforts should be made to cultivate it, 
— at all events, to encourage natural reproduction. 

Tanbark Oak. Strictly speaking, this tree is not an 
Oak, but a link between an Oak and a Chestnut. Its 
leaves resemble those of the Chestnut, even more so than 
do those of the eastern species of Chestnut Oak, while the 
acorns are similar to those of an Oak, and it takes two 
years for them to mature. It is the only one of its genus on 
this continent, though there are several in China and Japan. 
It is classed, however, as an Oak by lumbermen, and for all 
practical purposes such classification is not objectionable. 
It is botanically known as Pasania dens'iflora. It is not 
a first-class timber tree, but is worthy of consideration in 
a region where there are few useful hardwoods, and where 
the extensive use of its bark for tanning adds to its value. 
Its range is from southwestern Oregon to southern Cali- 
fornia, generally at from sea level to four thousand and five 
thousand feet elevation. It is seldom found over seventy- 
five feet in height and two feet in diameter, but larger 
trees are occasionally met with. On high elevations it 
may not exceed ten feet in height, and its characteristics 
there are so modified as to raise question as to its identity. 

The wood is dense, fine-grained, strong, very hard, brit- 
tle, — this latter feature varying with age, — reddish brown, 
with thick, darker- brown sapwood. The wood is now mainly 
used for fuel and the bark for tanning, although the wood, 
if properly treated, would do well for interior finish, fur- 
niture, and many other purposes. It is now being recklessly 
cut and destroyed, mainly for the bark. Little or no effort 
apj)ears to have been made to care for its preservation and 
none towards its cultivation. It is a prolific seeder and the 
seedlings stand considerable shade. It sprouts vigorously 
from the stump, producing permanent stems. With proper 
treatment there is no doubt but that natural reproduction 
would maintain an abundant supply. 



354 BROADLEAF TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE 

Broadleaf Maple. Of the four species of Maple growing 
on the Pacific Slope, only this has any economic value as a 
timber tree. It is quite frequently called " Bigleaf Maple " 
and " Oregon Maple." Botanically it is known as Acer 
macrophyllum. Its range is from northern Washington to 
southern California, along borders of foothills and low 
mountain streams, in moist, gravelly, and rich humus soils. 
Its climatic requirements are those of the Douglas and 
other Firs. It forms practically pure stands over large 
areas, but is often mixed with Lowland ^'w. It is light- 
demanding, and when in dense stands grows straight and 
quite free from limbs. It attains a height of from sixty to 
eighty feet with a diameter of from fifteen to thirty inches, 
sometimes larger, but when in the open, it is short-stemmed, 
crooked, and practically worthless for lumber. 

The wood is fine-grained, rather hard, firm, not strong, 
heartwood light brown, with pale reddish tint, and thick 
lighter-colored sapwood. It is largely used for interior 
finish, furniture, and general purposes, in which it com- 
pares quite favorably with the Hard Maples of the East- 
ern States. It is a tree of first importance in the region 
where it grows. Whether it will flourish outside of its na- 
tural habitat is problematical. It may be as exacting in 
climatic conditions as is its frequent companion the Dou- 
glas Fir. It is a rapid grower, forest-grown trees fifty to 
eighty years of age attaining a diameter of twelve to twenty 
inches, averaging an annual layer of one eighth of an inch 
in thickness. It sometimes reaches an age of two hundred 
years. 

While no efforts are known to have been made to culti- 
vate it for any other than ornamental purposes, there is no 
question but that it can be readily grown as a forest tree in 
its natural habitat. It is a good seeder and germination takes 
place quite well naturally, although growing plants in a 
nursery would more certainly result in a satisfactory stand. 
Its great importance as a timber tree renders its cultivation 
highly desirable. 



OREGON ASH 355 

Oregon Ash. This is the only Ash of importance in the 
Pacific Coast region. Its botanical designation is Fraxinus 
oregona. It may be found from the shores of Puget Sound 
south to San Francisco and along the foothills of the Si- 
erra. In most favored localities forest trees have long, clean 
stems, and narrow, short crowns of small branches, and are 
from sixty to seventy-five feet in height, and from sixteen 
to thirty inches in diameter, sometimes larger. 

The wood is substantially like the White Ash of the East- 
ern States. The heartwood is a dull yellowish brown, with 
whitish sapwood. In forest-grown trees it is moderately 
brittle and fine-grained, but in open-grown trees it is elastic 
and coarse-grained, particularly in the sapwood of young 
trees. The wood is not so heavy as that of our Eastern 
Ashes, but for general usefulness it compares very favor- 
ably with them, and in the main will serve for the same 
economic purposes. 

It is a good seeder, but the staminate and pistillate 
flowers are borne on separate trees, and hence, in gathering 
seed, care should be taken to see that they are fertile. Natu- 
ral reproduction is fairly good, if on suitable soil, which is 
that of alluvial bottoms and flats, and in this it main- 
tains the character of its eastern relative the White Ash. 
Whether it has a largely developed tap-root, as most Ashes 
have, or, if so, whether it can be deprived of it without 
serious consequences, as in the case of the White Ash, the 
author does not know. If it possesses no tap-root or if 
it has a tap-root that can be removed without serious 
results, it can, no doubt, be successfully grown in the nurs- 
ery and transplanted into the forest ; otherwise planting 
seeds must be resorted to. It is a fairly prolific seeder, 
with a high percentage of fertility. It makes a rapid height 
growth in early life. Forest-grown trees from sixteen to 
twenty-five inches in diameter are from ninety-five to one 
hundred and fifty -five years old. As age creeps on, they 
grow more slowly. It certainly is worthy of an attempt at 
cultivation as a forest tree. 



356 BROADLEAF TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE 

Red Alder. There are six species of Alder in the United 
States, and only one of them is of any commercial value. 
The common name of that one is Red Alder, and it is 
botanically known as Alnus oregona. It may be found 
growing from Puget Sound and the southwestern part of 
Washington, in Oregon, and along the Pacific Coast of 
California from the Oregon line to Santa Barbara. It is a 
broadleaf deciduous conifer. It may be found from eighty 
to ninety feet in height, with a diameter of eighteen to 
thirty inches, although far more commonly only forty to 
fifty feet high and twelve to fifteen inches through. It is 
light-demanding, and when grown in dense stands, sends 
up a straight stem, with small, slim, drooping limbs in the 
crown. The seedlings can endure considerable shade. 

The heart wood is soft, somewhat brittle, not strong, close- 
grained, light brown tinged with red, with very thick and 
nearly white sapwood when newly cut, but which turns to 
a red-brown soon after. This discoloration comes from the 
large amount of tannic acid in the wood, a sample of which, 
secured by the author, showed, on analysis, 8.45 per cent 
of tanniu. It shows a fine satiny surface when properly 
treated, and can be used for interior finish and furniture. 
Some fine samples of the finished wood were on exhibition 
at the Lewis and Clark Exhibition at Portland, Oregon. 

It is a prolific seeder, and if care were taken to thin 
dense natural stands, it would, no doubt, be profitable to 
grow it for lumber alone, for it is a rapid grower for the 
first twenty-five or thirty years of its life, trees running 
from ten to eighteen inches in diameter at twenty-five to 
fifty years of age, while the large amount of tannin the 
wood contains will add to its value when other sources for 
that necessary commodity fail. It attains its largest size 
along the coast, and flourishes best in a moist, fertile soil 
and a humid atmosphere. 

Western Chinquapin. No doubt this tree has been 
called a Chinquapin because of the resemblance of its fruit 



WESTERN CHINQUAPIN 357 

to that of the Chinquapin of the Southern States, a tree 
which belongs to the Chestnut family. But it is neither a 
Chestnut nor a Chinquapin, and is the only one of its kind 
on this continent. Its botanical name is Castaiiojysis chry- 
sophylla. It is sometimes called " Golden Chestnut." It is 
an evergreen, shedding its leaves at the end of the sec- 
ond or third year. It is scattered throughout Washington, 
Oregon, and California, but the region of its large growth 
is comparatively small, as in much of its range it gets but 
little above pole dimensions, and on high elevations is prac- 
tically a shrub. Its largest and best development is in north- 
western California among the Redwoods, in the moist, mild 
air of that region. It sometimes attains a height of one 
hundred feet, with a diameter of three to four feet, — 
larger dimensions are reported, — but ordinarily it reaches 
only fifty to sixty feet in height and eight to fifteen inches 
in diameter. It is of rather slow growth, trees from eighteen 
to twenty-five inches in diameter ranging from one hundred 
and forty-five to one hundred and ninety years of age. 

The wood is light, fine-grained, not strong, rather soft 
and somewhat brittle, pale reddish brown, with lighter- 
colored sapwood of fifty to sixty-five annual layers. The 
bark is rich in tannin. Large trees furnish excellent saw 
timber which is suitable for agricultural implements and 
like purposes. Its seed is a small sweet nut inclosed in a 
burr somewhat like that of a Chestnut and it requires two 
years to mature. It is a prolific seeder, but the little nuts 
are largely consumed by animals. It is not known that any 
attempt has been made to cultivate it. No doubt its propa- 
gation can be made successful, but whether by planting 
seeds or growing young trees in the nursery can be known 
only after experiment. It is evident that any attempt, out- 
side of the range of its best development, will be useless, 
for it is essentially a lover of a moist atmosphere and a 
mild climate, flourishing only where such conditions exist. 

THE END 



APPENDIX 



APPENDIX 



GLOSSARY OF SCIENTIFIC NAMES OF SPECIES OF 
TREES 

Acuminata. Tapering to a point. 

Alba. White. 

Aviabilis. Amiable, lovely. 

AngiistifoUa. Navrow-leaved. 

Aqiiatica. Of the water, aquatic. 

Balsamifera. Balsam-producing. 

Bignonioides. Bignonia-like. 

Canadensis. Canadian. 

Cinerea. Ashy-gray. 

Coccinea. Scarlet. 

Concolor. Of one color. 

Contorta. Twisted. 

Deltoides. Delta-shaped (as to leaves). 

Densiflora. Densely flowered. 

Dentata. Toothed (as to leaves). 

Digitata. Having fingers (leaflets resembling fingers). 

Distichum. Of two rows (as to leaves). 

Divaricata. Spread out (having abrupt or right-angled branches, 

straggling). 
Echinata. Prickly. 
Engelmanni. Named for Engelmann. 
Europea. European. 
Excelsa. Tall, lofty. 
Glabra. Smooth, without pubescence. 
Globidus. Round (as to fruit). 
Grandidentata. Deeply dentated (as to leaves). 
Grandis. Grand. 
Heterophylla. Variable-leaved. 
Laciniosa. Jagged (as to leaves). 



362 APPENDIX 

Lamhertiana. Named for Lambert. 

Lanceolata. Lance-shaped (as to leaves). 

Lenta. Pliant. 

Lutea. Yellow. 

Lyallii. Named for Lyall. 

Lyrata. Lyre-shaped (as to fruit). 

Macrocarpa. Large-fruited. 

Macrophyllum. Large-leaved. 

Magnifica. Magnificent. 

Michauxii. Named for Michaux. 

Minor. Smaller. 

Monticola. Mountain-inhabiting. 

Nobilis. Noble. 

Occidentalis. Western. 

Ovata. Egg-shaped (as to fruit or leaves). 

Pagodcefolia. With pagoda-like leaves. 

Palustris. Marsh-loving. 

Papyrifera. Paper-bearing. 

Pennsylvanicum. Of Pennsylvania. 

Platanoides. Plane-tree-like. 

Plicata. Folded. 

Ponderosa. Heavy. 

Primes. Latin name for a species of Oak. 

Pseudacacia. False Acacia. 

Pubescens. Downy (as to leaves). 

Quadrangulata. Four-angled. 

Racemosa. With racemes (the simplest form of elongated flower- 
cluster). 

Resinosa. Resinous. 

Rigida. Stiff (as to leaves). 

Rubens. Reddish. 

Rubra. Red. 

Saccharinum. Sugary. 

Saccharum. Sugary. 

Sempervirens. Evergreen. 

Serotina. Late (as to flowering). 

Speciosa. Beautiful, showy. 

Strobus. The name of an incense-bearing tree of Persia, men- 
tioned by Pliny. 

Styracijiua. Gum-exuding. 



APPENDIX 363 

Sylvestris. Of the woods. 

Tceda. Resinous, pitchy. 

Taxifolia. Yew-leaved. 

Thyoides. Resembling Thuya. 

Tinctoria. Pertaining to the dyer. 

Tremuloides. Resembling Tremula {Populus tremula, the 

European aspen). 
Triacanthos. Three-thorned. 
Tulipifera. Tulip-bearing. 
Velutina. Velvet-like. 
Virginiana. Of Virginia. 



II 



THE AVERAGE HEIGHT WHICH SEEDLINGS OF DIF- 
FERENT SPECIES REACH IN ONE AND TWO YEARS 

The following Table shows approximately the height which 
seedlings of the different species named attain in one and two 
years. Conditions of soil, location, and climate naturally operate 

to modify the figures given. In all cases there are extremes both 
ways even in close association. 

Species One year Two years 

inches inches 

White Pine 1^ 2^ 

Western White Pine 1^ 2 

Sugar Pine 2 4 

Longleaf Pine 1^ 2 

Cuban Pine 4 8 

Shortleaf Pine 4 6 

Old-Field Pine 7 12 

Western Yellow Pine 1^ 4 

Red Spruce 1 2 

White Spruce 1 2^ 

Engelmann Spruce 1^ 5 

Norway Spruce 1 5 

Fraser Fir l^. 4 

Balsam Fir 1 2^ 

Douglas Fir 1^ 3 

Hemlock 1 1|. 

White Cedar 1 1^ 

European Larch 1^ 5 

White Oak 3 6 

Overcup Oak 6 10 

Burr Oak 6 10 

Red Oak 5 8 

Black Oak 4 9 

Pin Oak 5 12 



APPENDIX 365 

o . One year Two years 

bpeeies ■ u • Z 

^ inches inches 

White Ash 8 16 

Red Ash 7 14 

Shagbai'k Hickory 4 9 

Shellbark Hickory 3 8 

Mockernut Hickory 5 10 

Pignut Hickory 4 8 

Sugar Maple 4 6 

Silver Maple 8 18 

Red Maple 8 15 

Yellow Poplar 5 15 

Chestnut 4 10 

White Elm 6 20 

Red Elm 8 20 

Cork Elm 6 15 

Basswood 4 10 

Black Birch 2 4 

Yellow Birch 4 8 

Beech 4 10 

Black Walnut 8 15 

Butternut 10 15 

Locust 4 9 

Honey Locust 5 15 

Sycamore 6 18 

Red Gum 8 15 

Catalpa 8 15 



Ill 



APPROXIMATE RANGE IN THE PERCENTAGE OF 

GERMINATION FOR TWENTY-SIX 

IMPORTANT SPECIES 1 

XT e ■ Percentacre of srerm- 

Name of species j^^^^j^^ > j^^^g ^^^^ 

White Pine 70 to 90 

Longleaf Pine 60 85 

Shortleaf Pine 50 75 

Loblolly Pine 50 80 

Western Yellow Pine 60 80 

Red Spruce 60 75 

Bald Cypress 25 50 

White Oak 75 95 

Chestnut Oak 75 95 

Burr Oak 75 95 

Red Oak 60 80 

White Ash 35 50 

Shagbark Hickory 50 75 

Shellbark Hickory 50 75 

Mockernut Hickory . 50 75 

Pignut Hickory 50 75 

Sugar Maple 30 50 

Yellow Poplar 5 10 

Chestnut 75 95 

Black Cherry 75 80 

White Elm 50 75 

Cork Elm 50 75 

Black Walnut 75 80 

Honey Locust 50 75 

Sycamore 60 75 

Catalpa 40 75 

1 From United Stales Forest Service Bulletin, No. 29, " The Nursery," page 36. 



IV 



NUMBER OF TREE SEEDS PER OUNCE AND POUND, 

AND ALSO THE APPROXIMATE NUMBER OF 

LINEAR FEET OF SEED DRILL COVERED 

BY EACH QUANTITY 1 



Species 



White Pine 
Red Pine . 
Shortleaf Pine 
Western Yellow Pine 
Norway Spruce 
Red Fir . . 
Bald Cypress*^ 
Honey Locust 
Hardy Catalpa 
White Ash . 
.Sugar INIaple 
Black Cherry 
Basswood . 
White Elm . 
Red Elm . 



Number of 

seeds in 

one ounce 



1.800 

4,700 

4,900 

100 

5,260 

4,200 

320 

200 

1,230 

640 

470 

279 

397 

5,820 

3,398 



Number of 


Covered 


seeds in 


by one 


pound 


ounce 


28,800 


36 


76,160 


75 


79,840 


80 


1,600 


16 


84,160 


75 


67,200 


60 


5,120 


20 


3,200 


16 


19,680 


60 


10,200 


25 


7,498 


20 


4,464 


20 


6.352 


20 


93.120 


125 


54,368 


80 



Covered 
by one 
pound 



576 

1,200 

1,280 

256 

1,200 

960 

320 

256 

960 

400 

320 

320 

320 

2,000 

1,280 



' Copied from United States Forest Service Bulletin, No. 29. 

2 About fifty per cent of the bulk of Cypress seed in the trade consists of refuse shells 
of cones. 



INDEX 



INDEX 



Abies amabilis (lovely fir), 194, 195. 

Abies balsamea (balsam fir), 190, 191. 

Abies concolor (white tir), 193, 194. 

Abies fraseri, 189, 190. 

Abies grandis (white, or grand fir), 
192, 193. 

Abies magnijica (red fir), 197, 198. 

Abies magnijica shastensis, 197. 

Abies nobilis (noble iir), 195, 196 ; why 
once called a larch, 195. 

Acer macrophyllum (broadleaf, or 
Oregon maple), 276, 354. 

Acer nigrum (black maple), 276-280. 

Acer rubrum (red maple), 282. 

Acer saccharinum (silver, or soft 
maple), 280, 281. 

Acer saccharum (sugar maple), 276- 
280. 

Age, at which trees should be har- 
vested, 53 ff. ; proper, for trans- 
planting, 112, 113. 

Alder, red. See Alnus oregona. 

Alnus oregona (red alder), 356. 

Annual rings, 71, 72. 

Arborvitse, species of, 210. See 
Thuya occidentalis and T. plicata. 

Artificial reforestation. See Reforest- 
ation, artificial. 

Ash, black. See Fraxinus nigra. 

Ash, blue. See Fraxinus quadran- 
gulata. 

Ash, green. See Fraxinus lanceolata. 

Ash, Oregon. See Fraxinus oregona. 

Ash, red. See Fraxinus pennsylvanica. 

Ash, -white, 354. And see Fraxinus 
americana. 

Ashes, the, species that produce mer- 
chantable lumber, 258. See various 
species under Fraxinus. 

Aspen, largetooth. See Populus gran- 
didentata. 

Aspen, trembling, 39, 178. And see 
Populus tremuloides. 

Aspens, two species of poplar so- 
called, 332; on Pacific slope, 351. 

Austria, revenue of national forests 
in, 18 n. 



Baden, revenue of national forests in, 

18 and n. 
Baker, Hugh P., quoted, 223, 224. 
Balm of Gilead. See Populus balsami- 

fera. 
Balsam, Canada, 190. 
Balsams. See Abies balsamea and A. 
fraseri. 
Bark, protective function of, 67 ; 

growth of, in tree-life, 71 ; changes 

in, 74, 75, 76 ; *' live " and " dead," 

75 ; useful ingredients of ,75 ; species 

easily distinguished by, 76. 
Barnyard manure, 105. 
Basswood. See Tilia americana. 
Basswood, downy. See Tilia pubes- 

cens. 
Basswood, -white. See Tilia hetero- 

phylla. 
Basswoods, species of, 302. 
Bastard sawing, 86. 
Bavaria, revenue of national forests 

in, 18 and n. ; investigations in as 

to comparative demands of trees 

and crops on the soil, 36. 
Bean tree. See Catalpa bignonioides. 
Beech. See Fagus americana. 
Beech, red, 310, 311. 
Beech, white, 310. 
Betula lenta (black birch), 306, 307. 
Betula lutea (yellow, or gray birch), 

307, 308. 
Betula nigra (red, or river birch), 

306. 
Betula papyrifera (paper, or canoe 

birch), 308, 309. 
" Big stockings," 328. 
Big tree, 199. And see Sequoia 

waskingtoniana. 
Big-bud hickory, 273. 
Birch, black, 291. And see Betula 

lenta. 
Birch, canoe. See Betula papyrifera. 
Birch, cherry, 291. And see Betula 

lenta. 
Birch, gray. See Betula lutea. 
Birch, paper. See Betula papyrifera. 



372 



INDEX 



Birch, red. See Betula nigra. 

Birch, river. See Betula nigra. 

Birch, sweet. See Betula lenta. 

Birch, yellow. See Betula Lutea. 

Birches, the, economically important 
species of, 306. And see under 
Betula. 

Bird's-eye maple, 278. 

Birds, methods of protecting seeds 
from, 98. 

Bitternut, 274. 

Black Jack, 251. 

" Blisters," 190. 

Bone, ground, 105, 106. 

Botanical range. See Range. 

Brainiff, Edward A., quoted, 56. 

Broadcast sowing, one method of ar- 
tificial reforestation, 26, 27 ; in nur- 
sery, 93-95. 

Broadieaf trees, should they be 
mingled with conifers ? 44, 45 ; in 
treeless regions, 52 ; transplanting 
less important for, than for coni- 
fers, 111, 112; of the Pacific Slope, 
351-357. 

Buds, in tree-life, 63. 

Burning, best method of treating land 
covered with worthless trees, 39, 
40. 

Butternut. See Juglans cinerea. 

Buttonball. See Platanus occiden- 
talis. 

Buttonwood. See Platanus occiden- 
talis. 

Cambium layer, the, between wood 
and bark, 67, 71, 74; a store- 
house for food, 71 ; experiment 
with, 75, 76. 

Canada, forest products of, not avail- 
able for U. S., 9 ; and the export- 
ation of wood-pulp, 9 ; forest pro- 
ducts of, 128. 

Castanea dentata (chestnut), 239, 286- 
290; disastrous fungus disease of, 
290. 

Castanopsis chrysophylla (western 
chinquapin), 356, 357 ; not really a 
chinquapin, 357. 

Catalpa, 294 n, 

Catalpa bignonioides (bean tree), 346, 
347. 

Catalpa, hardy. See Catalpa speciosa. 

Catalpa speciosa (hardy catalpa), 
344-346. 

Catalpas, the, species in U. S., 844. 



Cedar, red. See Juniperus virginiana, 
and Thuya plicata. 

Cedar, western red. See Thuya pli- 
cata. 

Cedar, white. See Thuya occidentalis, 
and Chamcecyparis thy aides. 

Cedars, species so misnamed, 207. 

Century Dictionary, " grain " and 
" fibre," how defined in, 80. 

Chamcecyparis thyoides, 212. 

Checking, 82, 83, 84. 

Cherry. See Prunus serotina. 

Cherry, black, 306. And see Prunus 
serotina. 

Cherry, rum. See Prunus serotina. 

Cherry, wild. See Prunus serotina. 

Chestnut, may recur in second 
growth, 18. And see Castanea den- 
tata 

Chestnut, " golden," 357- 

Chinese, and the sugar pine, 149. 

Chinquapin, western. See Castanop- 
sis chrysophylla. 

Chinquapin oak. See Querent acumi- 
nata. 

Chlorophyl, 66, 69. 

Clean-cutting, 22. 

Clements, F. E., Plant Physiology and 
Ecology, quoted, 68. 

Close-grained, 81. 

Coal, world-supply of, its probable 
duration, 10, 58. 

Coarse-grained, 81. 

Color, of wood, an element of value, 
85. 

Cones, described, 133 ; of Pinus 
strobus, 140, 141. 

Conifers, grown in nursery, when 
transplanted, 29 ; should they be 
mingled with broadieaf trees ? 44, 
45 ; in treeless regions, 52 ; the lum- 
berman's " softwoods," 79 ; import- 
ance of transplanting. 111, 112, 
113 ; their early growth slow, 112. 

Conservation of forests. See Forests. 

Conservation of natural resources, 
need of, 3, 4. 

Conservation cutting. See Selective 
cutting. 

Cottonwood. See Populus deltoides, 

Cottonwood, swamp. See Populus 
heterophylla. 

Cottonwood, yellow, 339. 

Cottonwoods, other species known as, 
in U.S., 332 jT!; on Pacific slope, 351. 

Cross-grained, 81. 



INDEX 



373 



Crown development, 65. 

Cucumber. iSee Magnolia acuminata. 

Cultivation of plants in forest nurs- 

ery, 100 #. 
Cut-over forests, seldom consist of 

original species, IS. 
Cut-over lands, 14, 42. 
Cutting. See Improvement cutting 

and Selective cutting. 
Cypress, only one American species of 

commercial value, 215. 

" Damping-off, " in nursery, how 
treated, 102 ; prevention the only 
remedy, 102. 

Decay, caused by disease, 84. 

Deciduous trees. See Trees, decidu- 
ous. 

Diameter of trees at various ages, 54. 

Douglas squirrel, the, 149. 

Downing, A. J., 205. 

Drills, sowing in, in nursery, 95-97 ; 
statistics concerning, 367. 

Droughts, caused by absence of for- 
ests, 8. 

Drying, effect of, on different classes 
of seeds, 116-118. And see Season- 
ing, 

Dry-kilns, uses of, 84. 

" Eaty " fibre, 77 

Elm, cedar. See Ulmus crassifolia. 

Elm, cork, 297. And see Ulmus race- 

mosa. 
Elm, gray. See Ulmus americana. 
Elm, hard, 300. 
Elm, red, 297. And see Ulmus pube- 

SC€TIS- 

Elm, rock, 300. 

Elm, slippery. See Ulmus pubescens. 

Elm, weeping, 300. 

Elm, white. See Ulmus americana. 

Elms, the, species indigenous in U.S., 
296. See under Ulmus. 

Engelmann spruce. See Picea engel- 
mnnni. 

England. See Great Britain. 

Erosion, of soil, usually follows de- 
struction of forests, 8 ; effect of, on 
reforestation, 8, 9; ultimate effect of, 
9 ; degree of, important in denuded 
land, 38 ; in farm lands, 59, 60. 

Eucalyptus, none of the many species 
of, indigenous in U. S., 348 ; two 
species successfully introduced in 
Arizona and California, 348. 



Eucalyptus globulus, 349. 

Europe, consumption of forest pro- 
ducts in, 128. 

Evaporation, 31. 

Evergreens, include both soft and hard 
woods in lumbermen's classification, 
79 ; fall planting of, 121. 

Exogens, the only real timber trees, 
71. 

Fagus americana (beech), 310-312; 
but one species in U. S., 310, 311 ; 
fungus disease of, 312. 

Farm purposes, growth of trees for, 
58 if. 

Farmer, the, must grow trees, 59. 

Farms, lands suitable for tree-growth 
on, 59; 60. 

Female flowers, 64. 

Fernow, B. E., Economics of Forestry, 
36 n., 179 n. 

Fertilizers, in the nursery, 10^106. 

Fertilizing, for nursery, 90 and n., 92. 

Fibre, defined, 80,81 ; strength of, 82. 
And see Grain. 

Fields, abandoned, tree-planting in, 
41. 

Fine-grained, 81. 

Fir, alpine, 193. 

Fir, amabilis. See Abies amabilis- 

Fir, Douglas. See Pseudotsuga taxi- 
folia. 

Fir, grand. See Abies grandis. 

Fir, lovely. See Abies amabilis. 

Fir, noble. See Abies nobilis. 

Fir, red, 195. And see Abies magni- 
fca. 

Fir, white. See Abies grandis and A. 
concolor. 

Fir, yellow, 199. 

Fire cherry, 39. 

Fires in forests, 8. 

Firs, species of, in U. S., 189 ; their 
distinguishing feature, 189 ; real 
economic value of, 198 ; their prob- 
able future, 198. See the various 
species under Abies. 

Firs, eastern. See Abies balsamea and 
A.fraseri. 

Firs, western, species of, 191 and n. 
And see Abies amabilis, A. concolor, 
A. grandis, A. magnifica, A. nobilis. 

Flat sawing, 86. 

Floods, caused by ahsence of forests, 8. 

Flowers, in tree-life, 63, 64 ; " per- 
fect," pistillate, and staminate, 63, 



374 



INDEX 



64. And see Female flowers and 
Male flowers. 

Forbes, A C, Development of British 
Forestry^ quoted, 47 n. 

Forest, history of an average, 17 ff. ; 
when plants should be set in, 121, 
122 ; spacing' plants in, 123^ 

Forest, second-growth, 14 ; need and 
methods of increasing productive- 
ness of, 15 , seldom consists of origi- 
nal species. 18. 

Forest, virgin, area of, being rapidly 
reduced, 14; main source of supply 
of forest products, 14 ; possible in- 
creased capacity of, 14, 15 ; need of 
conservative treatment of, 15 ; re- 
moval of mature trees from, 1 5 ; 
selective and improvement cutting 
in, 16; different species of trees in, 
43, 44 ; pure and mixed stands in, 
44. 

Forest crown, the, 33, 34. 

Forest floor, the, defined, 32 ; its pro- 
per maintenance of great import- 
ance, 32, 33. 

Forest nursery. See Nursery, forest. 

Forest products, essential to modern 
civilization, 8 ; not to be supplied 
by other countries, 9 ; and the ex- 
haustion of the coal supply, 10 ; no 
possible substitute for, lO ; statistics 
of, in U. S., for 1909, 10; other 
statistics of, 12 ; great sums of 
money used in exploiting, 12 ; fore- 
cast of future cost of, 127, and fu- 
ture price of, 127, 128; probable 
increased demand for, 128, 129; 
consumption of, in Europe, Asia, 
and Canada, 128. 

Foresters, differ as to mingling spe- 
cies, 45. 

Forestry, practical, importance of, 4 ; 
a science, 5 ; neglect of study of, 5, 
6 ; principal effort in, should be di- 
rected to tree-growing, 6, 7 ; conno- 
tation of term, 15 ; little under- 
stood, though a simple science, 15. 

Forestry departments, state, 114. 

Forests, possibilities of conservation 
of, 3, 4 ; present rate of consump- 
tion of, 4 and n. ; danger of exhaus- 
tion of, 4, 5 ; pressing need of con- 
servation of, 5 ; careless destruction 
of, 6 ; effect of presence or absence 
of, on water-courses, 8 ; how treated 
by lumbermen and others, 8; no 



seed trees left in, 8 ; destruction of, 
usually followed by fire, 8 ; in Can- 
ada and Europe, 9 ; in U. S., condi- 
tion of, to-day, compared with con- 
dition in Germany and France two 
centuries ago, lo, 21 ; treatment of 
mature and immature trees in, 15, 
16 ; selective and improvement 
cutting in, 15, 16; net annual reve- 
nue of (national), in Europe and 
U. S., 18 and n. ; and increased rain- 
fall, 31. And see Forest, second- 
growth. Forest, virgin, Forest pro- 
ducts, and Trees. 

Forests, mixed, -ioff. 

France, forests in, 9, 13, 21 ; success- 
ful reforestation in, 13 ; revenue of 
national forests in, 18 and n. 

Fraxinus americana (white ash), 258- 
262. Cut of seedling, opp. 64 ; cut 
of section, opp. 72 ; cut of planted 
trees, opp. 96. 

Fraxinus lanceolata (green ash), 263, 
264. 

Fraxinus nigra (black ash), 266, 267. 

Fraxinus oregona (Oregon ash), 355. 

Fraxinus pennsylvanica (red ash), 262, 
263. 

Fraxinus quadrangvlata (blue ash), 
264-266. 

Fruit, of trees, 86. 

Fuel, growth of trees for, 58 ; amount 
of wood used for, in U. S., 58. 

Fuller, Andrew S., 218. 

" Fungus of the cutting bench." 
See " Damping-off." 

Gas, probable duration of supply of, 
58. 

Germany, forests in, 9, 13, 21 ; suc- 
cessful reforestation in, 13. 

Germination, in tree-life, 65, 66 ; how 
aided in nursery, 98, 99; percent- 
age of, for 26 species, 366. 

Giant arborvitae. See Thuya pli- 
cata. 

Gleditsia triacanthos (honey locust), 
323-325 ; not a locust, 323. 

Grass, on forest floor, 34 ; planting 
trees in, 41. 

Grain of wood, irregularity of direc- 
tion of, a mystery, 76-78; kinds of 
irregularities of, 76, 77; meaning of 
term, 80, 81. And see Close-, 
Coarse-, Cross-, Fine-, and Straight- 
grained. 



INDEX 



37^ 



Qreat Britain, condition of forests in, 

9. 
Green. Samuel B., 167. 
Ground, preparation of, for nursery, 

90-92. 
Growing young trees in a nursery. 

See Nursery. 
Gum, black. See Nyssa sylvatica. 
Gum, blue, 349. 
Gum, cotton, 339, 340. 
Gum, red. See Liquidambar styraci- 

flua. 
Gum, sour, 339, 340. 
Gum, sweet, 339, 341. 
Gum, tupelo, 77. And see Nyssa 

aquatica. 
Gums, species of, 338, 339. See under 

Nyssa. 

Hackmatack (tamarack), 220. 

Hardwood, in lumbermen's classifica- 
tion, 79, 80 ; its meaning in this 
book, 80. 

Harvesting, proper age and dimen- 
sions for, 53 ff. 

Heartwood, formation of, 72 ; nature 
of, 73 ; moisture in, 82, 83. 

" Heeling-in, " in the nursery, 108, 
109. 

Hemlock, eastern. See Tsuga cana- 
densis and T. caroliniana. 

Hemlock, western. See Tsuga hete- 
rophylla. 

Hemlock bark, tannic acid (tannin) in, 
75, 203. 

Hemlocks, the, impending exhaustion 
of, 12 ; species of, indigenous in 
U. S., 203 ; general characteristics 
of, 203; tannin in bark of, 203. 
See species imder Tsuga. 

Hesse, revenue of national forests in, 
18 and n. 

Hickories, the, species of, indigenous 
in No. America, 268, 269 ; classes 
of, in commerce, 268 ; use of, in 
carriage-work, 268, and for smok- 
ing meat, 268 ; characteristics of, 
269. See species under Hicoria. 

Hickory, 306. 

Hickory, black, 268. 

Hickory, mockemut. See Hicoria 

alba. 
Hickory, pignut. See Hicoria gla- 
bra. 
Hickory, shagbark, 269, 272. And see 
Hicoria ovata. 



Hickory, shellbark, 268. And see 

Hicoria laciniosa. 
Hicoria alba (mockemut), 273, 274; 

many names of, 273. 
Hicoria glabra (pignut), 274, 275. 
Hicoria laciniosa (shellbark), 272,273. 
Hicoria viinima, 274. 
Hicoria ovata (shagback), 270-272. 
Hicoria pecan, 269. 
Holmes, 0. W., The Professor at the 

Breakfast-Table, 297. 
Homer, 260, 310. 
Honey locust. See Gleditsia triacan- 

thos. 
Humus, what it is, 32 ; its utility in 

fertilizing soil, 32, 33. And see 

Muck. 

Immature trees. See Trees. 

Improvement cutting, 15, 16. 

India, 128. 

Indians, and the sugar pine, 149. 

" Intolerant " trees, defined, 35 ; 

mingling of, with tolerant, 45. 
Investment in forests, when interest 

on, exceeds value of accretion, 56, 

57. 
Irrigation in forest nursery, 100, 101. 
Italians, and the sugar pine, 149. 
Italy, revenue of national forests in, 

18 n. 

Japan, 128. 

Juglans cinerea (butternut), 317, 318. 

Juglans nigra (black walnut), 313- 
316. 

Junipers, wrongly called cedars, 207 ; 
the most widely distributed species 
of tree in America, 207 ; only one 
variety valuable as timber tree, 
207. 

Juniperus virginiana (red cedar), 207, 
208. 

Kainit (fertilizer), 106. 
King-nut, 272. 

Land, once wooded, proper field for 
reforestation, 16 ; four classes of, 
subject to reforestation, 38-41. 

Larch, European. See Larix euro- 
pcea. 

Larch, western. See Larix occidenr 
talis. 

Larches, species of, 219. 

Larix europcea (European larch), 223- 



376 



INDEX 



225 ; much used for posts and tele- 
graph poles, 223, 224. 

Larix laricina (tamarack), 219-221. 

Larix occidentalis, 221, 222. 

Leaf, development of, in tree-life, 
68 ff. ; venation of, 68 ; skin of, 
68 ; stomata, 69, 70. 

Life-history of a tree, 6Sff. 

Light, essential to tree-growth, 35 ; 
all trees do not require equal 
amount of, 35 ; tolerant and intol- 
erant trees, 35 ; all trees require 
more, in old age, 36; essential to 
functioning of stomata, TO ; struggle 
of stems for, 71. 

Linden, European name for bass- 
wood, 302. 

Liquidambar styraciflua (red gum), 
34 1-343 ; not really a gum, 338, 34 1 . 

Liriodendron tulipifera (yellow pop- 
lar, or tulip-tree), 283-285 ; next to 
■white pine in value among soft- 
woods, 285. 

Live oak, 232. 

Locust. See Eobinia pseudacacia. 

Locust, honey. See Gleditsia tnacan- 
thos. 

Lumber, table of amounts of, cut 
from various species in U. S., in 
1909, 11; -waste in cutting, 55; 
character and quality of, how af- 
fected by age and size of trees, 56. 

Lumber, pine, vast quantity of man- 
ufactured in U. S., 133. 

Lumbermen, their inaccurate use of 
the terms hardwood and softwood, 
79, 80. 

Magnolia acuminata (cucumber), 326, 

327 ; the only species of commercial 

value, 326. 
Male flowers, 63, 64. 
Maple, bigleaf, 354. 
Maple, black. See Acer nigrum. 
JVIaple, broadleaf , 276. And see Acer 

macrophyllum. 
Maple, curled, 278. 
Maple, hard, 276. 
Maple, Norway, 280. 
Maple, Oregon, 276, 354. 
Maple, red, 276. And see Acer ru- 

brum. 
Maple, rock. See Acer nigrum and 

A. saccharum. 
Maple, scarlet. See Acer rubrum. 
Maple, silver, 276, 280. And see Acer 



saccharinum. 

Maple, soft, 276. And see Acer sac^' 
charinum. 

Maple, southern hard, 48 n. 

Maple, sugar, 153. And see Acer 
saccharum. 

Maples, the, a very large family, and 
important as timber trees, 276 ; 
hard and soft species of, 276. See 
species under Acer. 

Mature trees. See Trees. 

Maturity in tree-life, the period of 
best economic development, 15. 

Medullary rays, described, 73, 74; 
decorative importance of, 85, 86; 
quarter-sawing, 86. 

"Mirrors," 74. 

Mixed stand. See Stand, mixed. 

Mockernut hickory. See Hicoria alba. 

Moisture, in soil, essential to tree- 
growth, 31, 32; trees require less 
of, than farm crops, 37 ; drying out, 
in seasoning, 82, 83 ; how main- 
tained in nursery seed-beds, 98, 99 ; 
how supplied to young plants, 100, 
101. 

Muck, best fertilizer for forest nurs- 
ery, 90 n., 105. 

Muir, John, Our National Parks, 
quoted, 146, 147. 

National Conservation Commission, 

58. 

Natural range. See Range. 

Natural resources, not inexhaustible, 
3 ; need of conservation of, 3, 4. 

Nature, in reforestation, 16, 17. 

Naval stores, 134 n. 

New York Forest Nursery, 103, 104. 

Nitrogen in soil, comparative amounts 
of, required by trees and by crops, 
36 and n. 

Norway, forests in, 9, 128. 

Nurse trees, 15, 47. 

Nursery, growing young trees in, the 
best method of artificial reforest- 
ation, 28-30 ; more expensive at 
first, but more economical at last, 
30 ; in Saxony and Switzerland, 30. 

Nursery, forest, why method of grow- 
ing trees in, is most successful, 87 
ff. ; greater size and vigor of trees 
so grown, 87, 88 ; best location of, 
89 ; preparation of ground for, 90- 
92 ; sowing seed in, 92-97 ; use of 
screens in, 97, 98, 99 ; protecting 



INDEX 



377 



seeds from birds in, 98 ; aiding g-er- 
niination in, 98, 99 ; protection from 
bright sunlight in, 99 ; care and 
cultivation of plants in, 100 ff. ; 
abundant supply of water essential, 
100 ; surface irrigation in, 100, 101 ; 
pulverizing surface soil in, 101 ; pro- 
tection of seedlings in winter in, 
102-104; best fertilizers for, 104- 
106 ; thinning out, 106 ; removal of 
plants from, 106, 107, 109; root- 
pruning in, 107, 108 ; " heeling-in," 
108, 109. 

Nursery, transplant, defined, 89, 111 ; 
purpose of, 111 ; a simple affair, 
113; fertilization and preparation 
of, 113, 114 ; cultivation of, 114. 

Nut-bearing trees. See Trees, nut- 
bearing. 

Nyssa aquatica (tupelo gum), 340, 
341. 

Nyssa sylvatica (black gum), 339, 
340; known by diverse names in 
different states, 339. 

Oak, black. See Quercus velutina. 

Oak, burr. See Quercus macrocarpa. 

Oak, chestnut. See Quercus prinus. 

Oak, chinquapin. See Quercus acu- 
minata. 

Oak, cow. See Quercus michauxii. 

Oak, Garry. See Quercus garryana. 

Oak, mossycup. See Quercus macro- 
carpa. 

Oak, overcup. See Quercus lyrata. 

Oak, pin. See Quercus palustris. 

Oak, post. See Quercus minor. 

Oak, red. See Quercus rubra. 

Oak, rock. See Quercus prinus. 

Oak, scrub, 39. 

Oak, southern red. See Quercus tex- 
ana. 

Oak, Spanish. See Quercus pagodce- 
folia. 

Oak, swamp white. See Quercus pla- 
tanoides and Q. lyrata. 

Oak, tan. See Quercus prinus. 

Oak, , tanbark. See Pasania densi- 
flora. 

Oak, valley white. See Quercus lo- 
bata. 

Oak, white, 262. And see Quercus 
alba. 

Oak, yellow. See Quercus acuminata. 

Oak bark, tannic acid in, 75. 

Oaks, certain species of; may recur 



in second growth, 18 ; number of 
species in U. S.,231; division of, into 
classes, 231 and n., 232 ; species on 
Pacific slope, 352-354. See species 
under Quercus. 

Oaks, red, 231, 247-257. 

Oaks, white, 232, 246. 

" Oh-neh-tah," 203. 

" Oo-800-hoo-tah," 210. 

Pacific slope, broadleaf trees of, 351- 

357. 
Pasania densi flora (tanbark oak), 

353 ; a link between oak and chest- 
nut, 353. 
Pearlash, 278. 

Pennsylvania Forest Department, 41. 
Pennsylvania Forest Nursery, 103, 

104. 
Pepperidge, 339. 
" Perfect " flowers, 63, 64. 
Phosphoric acid, in soil, comparative 

amount of, required by trees and 

by crops, 36. 
Picea canadensis (white spruce), 182 ; 

forms great bulk of forests of 

Alaska and No. Canada, 182. 
Picea engelmanni (Engelmann's 

spruce), 183-185. 
Picea excelsa (Norway spruce), 185- 

188 ; an imported tree, 185. 
Picea ruhens (red spruce), 179-182 ; 

wood of, used mostly for pulp, 180, 

181. 
Picea sitchensis (tideland spruce), 178, 

199. 
Pignut. See Hicoria glabra. 
Pine, bull. See Pinus ponderosa. 
Pine, cork, 140. 
Pine, Cuban, 152. And see Pinus 

heterophylla. 
Pine, Eastern white. See Pinus stro" 

bus. 
Pine, Georgia. See Pinus palustris. 
Pine, hazel, 339. 

Pine, Jeffrey. See Pinus jeffreyi. 
Pine, Jersey. See Pinus virginiana. 
Pine, loblolly. See Pinus tceda. 
Pine, lodgepole. See Piiius murray- 

ana. 
Pine, longleaf. See Pinus palustris. 
Pine, northern. See Pinus strobus. 
Pine, Norway, 176. And see Pinus 

resinosa. 
Pine, nut. See Pinus monophylla. 
Pine, old-field. See Pinus tceda. 



378 



INDEX 



Pine, Oreg'on, 199, 206. 

Pine, pinyon. See Pinus monophylla- 

Pine, pitch. See Pinus rigida. 

Pine, pumpkin, 140. 

Pine, red. See Pinus resinosa. 

Pine, Scotch. See Pinus sylvestris. 

Pine, scrub. See Pinus virginiana. 

Pine, shortleaf, 48 n. And see Pinus 
echinata. 

Pine, slash. See Pinus heterophylla. 

Pine, spruce. See Pinus slrobus. 

Pine, sugar, 170, 193, 196. And see 
Pinus lambertiana. 

Pine, swamp. See Pinus heterophylla. 

Pine, torch. See Pinus Ueda. 

Pine, western yellow. See Pinus pon- 
derosa. 

Pine, western white. See Pinus mon- 
ticola. « 

Pine, Weymouth. See Pinus strobus. 

Pine, white. See Pinus strobus. 

Pine, yellow. See Pinus palustris. 

Pines, different species of, yielded 
one half of lumber cut in U. S. in 
1909, 10, 12 ; importance of, from 
economic and industrial standpoint, 
lo3 ; all species of, not equally val- 
uable, 133 ; varieties indigenous in 
U. S., 133 ; all are conifers, 133 ; 
Prof. Sargent's classification of, 135. 

Pines, hard, described, 134 ; resin in, 
134. 

Pines, pitch, in Prof. Sargent's classi- 
fication. 13.J. 

Pines, soft, practically synonymous 
with white pines, 134 ; varieties of, 
134. 

Pines, white, practically synonymous 
•with soft pines, 134 ; varieties of, 
134 ; distinction between, and yel- 
low pines, 134. And see Pinus 
lambertiana, P. monticola, P. stro- 
bus. 

Pines, yellow, distinction between, 
and white pines, 134 ; species of, 
134, 13.5. 

Pinus echinata (shortleaf pine), 157- 
160 ; sold under many names, 157. 

Pinus heterophylla (Cuban pine), 156, 
157. 

Pinus jpffreyi, 170 and n., 173. 

Pinus lambertiana (sugar pine), 146- 
149 ; origin of its common name, 
146; its enemies, 149. 

Pinus monophylla, 133. 

Pmus monticola (western white pine), 



143-146 ; similarity of, to common 
white pine {strobus), 143, 144 ; its 
future, 146. 

Pinus murrayana (lodgepole pine), 
173-175. 

Pinus palustris (longleaf pine), 150- 
155 ; known by many names, 150 ; 
its future unpromising, 155. 

Pinus ponderosa (western yellow 
pine), 169-173 ; known by many 
names, 169; its great size, 170; 
199. 

Pinus resinosa (Norway pine), 166- 
169; resinosa a misnomer, 166; 
rapidlv disappearing in U. S., 166, 
167. 

Pinus rigida (pitch pine). 163-166. 

Pinus strobus (white, or eastern white, 
pine), cut of second-growth, opp. 
54 ; cut of staminate blossoms, opp. 
64 ; cut of seed-development, opp. 
64 ; cut of section, opp. 72 ; cut 
of seedlings, opp. 88 ; cut of ten- 
year-old planting, opp. 136; 135- 
143. 

Pinus sylvestris (Scotch pine), 175- 
1 77 ; an important timber tree in 
Europe, 175. 

Pinus tceda (loblolly, or old-field 
pine), cut of section, opp. 72 ; 161- 
163 ; its many names, 161 ; varieties 
of, 161. 

Pinus virginiana (scrub pine), 166. 

Pistillate flowers, 64. 

Pith, 73. 

Plain sawing, 86. 

Plane, oriental, 280, 328. 

Planting in hills, a method of artificial 
reforestation, 27, 28. 

Plants, care and cultivation of, in 
nursery, 100 ff. ; removal of, from 
nursery, 106, 107, 109, 121, 122; 
setting in the forest, 109, 110, 121, 
122; packing for shipment, 110; 
transplanting. 111 ff.; furnished 
free by states, 114 ; spacing, in the 
forest, 123^7'. 

Platanus occidentalis (sycamore or 
buttonwood), 328-331 ; fungus dis- 
ease of, 331. 

Platanus orientalis, 280, 328. 

Pollen, 64. 

Poplar, bay, 339, 341. 

Poplar, Carolina, or cottonwood, cut 
of section, opp. 72 ; 332-337. 

Poplar, necklace, 333. 



INDEX 



379 



Poplar, white, 283. 

Poplar, yellow (tulip-tree). See Lir- 
iodendron tulipifera. 

Poplars, and cottonwoods, confusion 
between, 332, 333 ; on Pacific slope, 
351. 

Populus balsamifera (balm of Gilead), 
332, 334, 337. 

Populus deltoides (cottonwood), 332- 
337. 

Populus grandidentata (largetooth 
aspen), 332. 

Populus heterophylla (swamp cotton- 
wood), 332, 387. 

Populus tremuloides (trembling aspen), 
332. 

Potash, in soil, comparative amounts 
of, required by trees and by crops, 
36 and n. 

Practical Forestry. See Forestry. 

Prunus serotina (black cherry), 291- 
295. 

Prussia, revenue of national forests 
in, 18 and n. 

Pseudotsuga taxifolia (Doug-las fir, or 
Douglas spruce), 199-202; import- 
ance of, as timber tree, 199 ; really 
a "false hemlock," 199; its great 
size, 200. 

Pulp. See Wood-pulp. 

Pulverizing the soil retards evapora- 
tion, 101. 

Pure stand. See Stand, pure. 

Quarter-sawing, ^Q. 

Quercus acuminata (chinquapin oak), 

245, 246. 
Quercus alba (white oak), 232-237 ; 

the most important of broadleaf 

trees, 232 ; methods of reproduc- 
tion of, 235-237. 
Quercus garryana (Garry oak), 352, 

353. 
Quercus lobata (valley white oak), 352. 
Quercus lyrata (overcup oak), 239. 
Quercus macrocarpa (burr oak), 241, 

242. 
Quercus michauxii (cow, or basket 

oak), 242-244. 
Quercus minor (post oak), 244, 245. 
Quercus pagodcefolia (Spanish oak), 

253, 254. 
Quercus palustris (pin oak), 254- 

256. 
Quercus platanoides (swamp white 

oak), 238, 239. 



Quercus prinus (chestnut oak), 239- 
241. 

Quercus rubra (red oak), cut of sec- 
tion, opp. 72 ; 247-250. 

Quercus texana (southern red oak), 
256, 257. 

Quercus tinctorium, 252. 

Quercus velutina (black oak), 251, 252. 

Kain, methods of utilizing, 31. 

Rainfall, influence of forests on, 31. 

Range, botanical, 50 ; natural, 50. 

Redwood, may recur in second 
growth, 18 ; 199, 228-230. 

Reforestation, success of, in France 
and Germany, 13 ; the only hope of 
U. S., 13, 38; defined, 16; distinc- 
tion between natural and artificial, 
16, 17 ; significance of varying need 
of light in, 35 ; difficulties of, 3S_^.' ; 
four classes of land on which it must 
be effected, 38-41 ; should be begun 
at once where forests are being re- 
moved, 40, 41 ; mingling of species 
in,43# 

Reforestation, artificial, requires less 
area to be devoted to tree-growing 
than does natural, 18 ; various pro- 
cesses of, 22 Jf^ 

Reforestation, natural, effect of ero- 
sion in, 8, 9 ; described, 16 ; dis- 
cussed, VI ff.; requires larger area 
than artificial, 18 ; great uncertain- 
ties connected with, 20 ; Nature's 
method, but more likely to fail than 
not, 20, 21 ; not to be depended on, 
for forests of U. S., 21. 

Resin, in pines, 1-34 and n. ; in pitch 
pine, 164 ; in Norway pine, 166. 

Respiration in tree-life, 69. 

Rings, annual. See Annual rings. 

Robinia pseudacacia (locust), 319- 
322 ; the only valuable tree reason- 
ably sure to reproduce itself by 
sprouts, 322. 

Root, development of, in tree-life, 65, 
66 ; its functions, 66, 67 ; pruning 
of, 107, 108 ; care of, in transplant- 
ing, 109, 111, 114. And see Tap- 
root. 

Roumania, revenue of national forests 
in, 18 n. 

Russia, forests in, 9 ; revenue of na- 
tional forests in, 18 n. ; 128. 

Sap, supply of, depends on moisture, 



380 



INDEX 



31 ; function of, 31 ; circulation of, 
in tree-life, 67, 68 and n. ; from 
sugar maples, 278, 279; from birches, 
307, 308. 

Sapwood, formation of, 72 ; nature of, 
73 ; moisture in, 82, 83. 

Sargent, Charles S., his classification 
of pines, 135 ; Manual of the Trees 
of No. America, 145, 149, 182, 199, 
296, 345; Silva of No. America, 320. 

Sawing, variovis methods of, 86. And 
see Bastard-sawing, Flat-sawing, 
Plain-sawing, Quarter-sawing. 

Saxony, revenue of national forests 
in, 18 and n. ; strip seeding in, 23; 
forest nurseries in, 30. 

Schlich, Manual, 26. 

Screens, in the nursery, 97, 98, 99. 

Seasoning, 82, 83. 

Second-growth forest. See Forest, 
second-growth. 

Seed, probable failure of, to produce 
trees under most favorable condi- 
tions, 19, 20 ; fertile, 63, 64 ; Na- 
ture's lavish method of sowing, 64, 
65 ; sowing in nursery, 92-97 
(broadcast, 93-95, in drills, 95- 
97 ) ; treatment of, in broadcast 
sowing, 94, and amount. 94, 95; how 
protected, 97 ff. ; how sown and 
cared for by Nature, 115 ; germin- 
ating power of, not uniform, 115 n.; 
when and how to sow, 11.5-118; 
different classes of, 116 ; statistics 
concerning, 367. 

Seed-bed, 88, 89. 

Seed-drills. See Drills. 

Seeding, spot. See Spot seeding. 

Seeding, strip. See Strip seeding. 

Seedlings, 89 ; protection of, in winter, 
102-104 ; of different species, aver- 
age height attained by, in one and 
two years, 364, 365. 

Seeds, winged, 64, 65. 

Selective cutting, 15, 16. 

Sequoia washingtoniana (big tree), 
226-228 ; its great size, 227. 

Sequoia wellingtonia (redwood), 228- 
230 ; its great size, 229 ; probable 
early exhaustion of, 229. 

Sequoias, species of, 226; the only pre- 
sent-day trees that existed in pre- 
historic times, 226. 

Sliade, proper amount of, 33, 34 ; dis- 
tinction between intolerant and tol- 
erant trees, 35. 



Shagbark hickory. See Hicoria 
ovata. 

Shallow-rooted trees, 119. 

Shellbark hickory. See Hicoria la- 
ciniosa. 

Shrinkage, 83, 84. 

" Silver Sheens," 74. 

Size, at which trees should be har- 
vested, 53_^i 

Sod, planting trees in, 41. 

Softwood, in lumbermen's language 
equivalent to conifers, 79, but not 
to evergreens, 79 ; judicially deter- 
mined meaning of term, 80 ; its 
meaning in this book, SO. 

Soil, products of, only resources cap- 
able of conservation, 3, 4 moist- 
ure in, essential to tree-growth, 
31 ; utility of humus in retaining 
moisture in, 32, 33 ; do forests 
impoverish ? 36, 37. And see 
Ground. 

Sowing, best time for, 114-118. And 
see Broadcast sowing. Nursery, and 
Seeds. 

Spacing trees, in the forest, 123-125 ; 
should be as uniform as possible, 
124. 

Spain, revenue of national forests in, 
18 n. 

Species, should they be mingled ? 43 
ff. ; contest for supremacy between, 
43, 44 ; pure and mixed stands, 
44 ; principles to govern mingling 
of, 44, 45. 

Spot seeding, a method of artificial 
reforestation, 24, 25. 

Spring wood. See Wood, spring. 

Sprouts, 17, 18; reproduction of lo- 
cust by, 322. 

Spruce, Douglas. See Pseudotsuga 
taxifolia. 

Spruce, Engelmann's, 193. And see 
Picea engelmanni. 

Spruce, Norway. See Picea excelsa. 

Spruce, red. See Picea rubens. 

Spruce, Rocky Mountain. See Picea 
engelmanni. 

Spruce, tideland. See Picea sitchensis 

Spruce, white. See Picea canadensis. 

Spruce, yellow, 199. 

Spruces, the, economically important 
species of, 178 ff. ; increased con- 
sumption of, in recent years, 178 ; 
valuable for pulp wood, 178 ; rapid 
destruction of forests in U. S., 178 ; 



INDEX 



381 



in commerce, 179. See species under 

Picea. 
Squirrels, as seed-eaters, 149, 153,190. 
Sqiurrels, Douglas, 149. 
Staniinate flowers, 63, 64. 
Stand, mixed, defined, 44. 
Stand, pure, defined, 44 ; alleged 

merits and demerits of, 46. 
Stem, development of, iu tree-life, 

68; its struggle for light, 71. 
Stomata (in leaf), function of, 69; 

must have light, 70. 
Straight-grained, 81, 82. 
Strength, determines value of wood 

for many purposes, 85. 
Strip seeding, a method of artificial 

reforestation, 22-24, 25. 
Stripped lands, 14. 
Stumpage, 129. 

Stumps, area of, at various ages, 54. 
Sudworth, George B., Forest Trees of 

the Pacific Slope, 143, 170 n., 173, 

191 n., 192. 351. 
Sugar tree, 276. 
Sumac, 39. 

Summer wood. See Wood, summer. 
Sunlight, protection of seedlings from 

excess of, in nursery, 99. 
Sweden, revenue of national forests 

in, 18 n. 
Switzerland, revenue of national for- 
ests in, 18 and n. ; forest nurseries 

in, 30. 
Sycamore, " eaty " fibre of, 77. And 

see Platanus occidentalis. 

Tamarack. See Larix laricina. 
Tannic acid, in bark, 75, 203, 239. 
Tannin. See Tannic acid. 
Tap-root, presence of, adverse to 

nursery-growth, 88; defined, 119; 

function of, 119; varies in different 

species, 119 ; unsuccessful attempts 

to deal with, 119, 120; 107, 108, 

112. 
Tap-rooted trees, 119. 
Taxodium distichum (bald cypress), 

215-218. 
Texture, an element of value in wood, 

85. _ 
Thinning-out, in forest nursery, 100 ; 

in forest, 124. 
Thuya occidentalis ("white cedar, or 

arborvitffi), 210-212. 
Thuya plicata (giant arborvitae), 210, 

213. 214. 



Tilta americana (basswood), 302-305. 

Tilia heterophylla (white basswood), 
302-305. 

Tiiia pubescens (downy basswood), 
302-305. 

Timber famine, imminence of, 9, 128; 
not to be averted by use of species 
heretofore deemed of little value, 
12, 13. 

Timber trees, divided into softwoods 
and hardwoods, 79 ; inaccuracy of 
this classification, 79. 

"Tolerant" trees, defined, 35; min- 
gling of, with intolerant, 45. 

Transplant nursery. See Nursery, 
transplant. 

Transplanting young trees from the 
nursery, 28-30; more important 
for conifers than for broadleaf 
trees, 111, 112; proper time for, 
112, 113. 

"Transplants," 89. 

Tree-culture, underlying principles 
of, everywhere the same, 21. 

Tree-growing, most important branch 
of forestry to-day, 6, 7, 13 ; in 
reforestation, 17j^; comparative 
areas required for natural and arti- 
ficial methods, 18 ; moisture essen- 
tial to, 31 ; in nursery, described, 
87 ff.; will it ever be profitable in 
U. S_. ? 126-129 ; not unless eco- 
nomic conditions change, 126; fore- 
cast of future cost and price of 
products of, 127, 128, 129. And see 
Tree-growth. 

Tree-growth, light essential to, 35, 
but not in unvarying degree,35 ; con- 
stituents of soil required for, in cer- 
tain cases, 36 ; demands of, on soil, 
36 and n., 37; methods of removing 
worthless growth from lands to be 
reforested, 39, 40; rate of, 41; 
rapidity of, to govern decision 
as to mingling species, 47 ; ratio of 
increase in, 54. And see Tree- 
growing. 

Tree-life, laws governing, 63 ff. 

Tree-planting, necessity of, 7 ; in tree- 
less regions, 51, 52. 

Treeless regions of U. S., 51, 52 ; spe- 
cies of trees planted in, 5l, 52. 

Trees, thirty-one species of, yielded 
99.9 per cent of lumber cut in 
U. S. in 1909, 10, 11, 12 ; considera- 
tions governing removal of, in re- 



382 



INDEX 



forestation, 17, 18; refuse matter 
from, 82, 83 ; all species of, require 
more light in old age, 36 ; relations 
between different species of, 43 ff. ; 
should they be mingled? 43^; 
significance of varying rate of 
growth in, 47, 48 and n. ; selection 
of, for planting, 49-52 ; majority 
of, in U. S., worthless for timber, 
49; natural and botanical ranges 
of, 51, 52 ; species successfully 
planted in treeless regions, 51, 52 ; 
when to harvest, 53 ff. ; table of di- 
mensions of, at various ages, 54; 
necessary use of, for fuel and farm 
purposes, 58^; farm-lands suitable 
for growth of, 59, 60 ; may be made 
to assume desired form, 63; life- 
history of, 63 ff. ; when to plant, in 
the forest, 121, 122 ; spacing, in the 
forest, 123 ff. And see Forest, sec- 
ond-growth and virgin, Forests, 
Nursery, Plants. 

Trees, deciduous, 66. 

Trees, immature, 15, 17, 19. 

Trees, mature, 15, l7, 19. 

Trees, nut-bearing, methods of pro- 
pagating, 28. 

Trees, timber. See Timber trees. 

Trojan War, the, 260. 

Tsuga canadensis (hemlock), 204, 205. 

Tsuga caroliniana (Carolina hemlock), 
204, 206. 

Tsuga heterophylla (western hem- 
lock), 205, 206 ; sold as Oregon 
pine, 205. 

" Tuck Tuck," 195. 

Tulip-tree. See Liriodendron tulipi- 
fera. 

Turpentine, in pines, 134 and n., 140, 
155. 

Vlmus americana (white, or gray elm), 
296-299. 

TJlmus crassifolia (cedar elm), 301. 

Ulmus pubescens (red, or slippery elm), 
299. 

Ulmus racemosa (cork elm), 300, 301. 

United States, timber famine immi- 
nent in, 9, 10; typical of world- 
conditions, 9 ; revenue of national 
forests in, 18 and n. ; tree-bearing 
and treeless regions in, 49. 

United States Forest Service, 155, 
294 n., 305, 312, 346. 



Venation of leaf, 68. 

Veneers, black walnut largely used 

for, 314, 315. 
Virgin forest. See Forest, virgin. 

Walnut, black, 272, 292, 314, 315, 
317, 318. And see Juglans nigra. 

Walnut, " Circassian," 339, 341, 342. 

Walnut, satin, 338, 339. 

Walnut, white, 318. 

Warping, 82, 84. 

Waste, proportion of, in cutting lum- 
ber, 55 ; divers kinds of, 55. 

Water, mean supply of, essential for 
best results, 31, 32 ; utility of forest 
floor in retaining, 32. 

Water-courses, effect of presence or 
absence of forests on, 8. 

Weeds, as a hindrance to tree-growth, 
39, 40 ; eradicating, in nursery, 92, 
93. 

White pine, eastern. See Pinus stro- 
bus. 

White pine, western. See Pinus mon- 
ticola. 

Whitewood (tulip-tree). See Lirio- 
dendron tulipifera. 

"Winding" fibre, disadvantage of, 
77 ; is it hereditary ? 78. 

Winged seeds. See Seeds, winged. 

Winter, protection of seedlings in, 
102-104. 

Wood, manifold uses of, 10, 12 ; large 
use of, for fuel, 12 and n., 58; 
chemical composition of, 37 ; in- 
crease of, in tree-life, 71-73 ; an- 
nual rings, 71 ; heartwood and sap- 
wood, 72, 73 ; pith, 73 ; medullary 
rays, 73, 74; classification of, 79, 
ff. ; various characteristics of, and 
their bearing on its value, 80-86. 

Wood, spring, 71. 

Wood, summer, 72. 

Wood ashes, unleached, 105, 106. 

Woodlot, the, 58-62. 

Wood-pulp, exportation of, prohib- 
ited in parts of Canada, 9; trees 
suited for, 82 ; value of spruces for, 
178, 180. 

Wiirttemberg, revenue of national 
forests in, 18 and n. 

Yellow pine, western, 193, 206. And 
see Pinus ponder osa. 



(91 be Ulilierjibe prt0 

CAMBRIDGE . MASSACHUSETTS 
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\m I 1912 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 



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